PUMA Guidelines · tracheal extubation Diretrizes PUMA · extubação traqueal
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Project for Universal Management of Airways: guidelines for tracheal extubationProjeto para Manejo Universal de Vias Aéreas: diretrizes para extubação traqueal

The first international, multidisciplinary, evidence-based guidelines dedicated to tracheal extubation — risk evaluation, strategy formulation and preparation to decrease the incidence of adverse events. Anaesthesia 2026.

As primeiras diretrizes internacionais, multidisciplinares e baseadas em evidências dedicadas à extubação traqueal — avaliação de risco, formulação de estratégia e preparação para diminuir a incidência de eventos adversos. Anaesthesia 2026.

Full bilingual text · 251 references · 6 figures · 3 tablesTexto integral bilíngue · 251 referências · 6 figuras · 3 tabelasdoi:10.1111/anae.70365

Louise Ellard, Andy Higgs, Richard M. Cooper, Carin A. Hagberg, Paul A. Baker, Robert Greif, George Kovacs, J. Adam Law, Sheila N. Myatra, Ellen P. O’Sullivan, William H. Rosenblatt, Christopher H. Ross, John C. Sakles, Massimiliano Sorbello and Nicholas C. Chrimes

Louise Ellard, Andy Higgs, Richard M. Cooper, Carin A. Hagberg, Paul A. Baker, Robert Greif, George Kovacs, J. Adam Law, Sheila N. Myatra, Ellen P. O’Sullivan, William H. Rosenblatt, Christopher H. Ross, John C. Sakles, Massimiliano Sorbello and Nicholas C. Chrimes

Chapter 1Capítulo 1

Summary & Key RecommendationsResumo & Recomendações-chave

SummaryResumo

Introduction Risk evaluation, strategy formulation and preparation are important to decreasing the incidence of adverse events associated with tracheal extubation. The focus of this guideline is tracheal extubation, but many of the principles outlined are relevant to all forms of discontinuation of airway management (tracheal extubation; removal of a supraglottic airway; cessation of facemask support; and tracheostomy removal) and conversion between upper airway lifelines (facemask; supraglottic airway; and tracheal tube) or a neck airway.

Methods An international, multidisciplinary working group reviewed existing airway guidelines and published literature. A structured process for generating expert consensus statements was undertaken, which included consultation with an international advisory group comprising both airway operators and assistants, as well as human factors experts. Discrepancies between the results of these two processes were analysed and reconciled. Guidelines were generated and recommendations were categorised according to the American Heart Association classi fi cation system.

Results Risk evaluation for tracheal extubation includes assessing the risk of hypoxaemia, pulmonary aspiration and harm from airway stimulation. The patient ' s baseline risk as well as any potential changes since tracheal intubation should be considered. In addition to patient risks, team and situation risk factors should be considered when formulating the extubation strategy. Planned extubation is always elective, maximising ability to control the timing, environment and resources available. Deferring extubation is recommended if this will signi fi cantly decrease risk. When substituting one lifeline for another, `conversion procedures´, characterised by the presence of a continuous guide to maintain or facilitate rapid restoration of alveolar ventilation, are safer and preferred over airway `replacement procedures´, particularly when airway management is regarded as `at risk´.

Discussion These guidelines assist airway practitioners from any discipline to evaluate whether tracheal extubation is `at risk´ and link this to formulating a safe and effective strategy that addresses the speci fi c challenges identi fi ed.

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For full author af fi liations, see end of article

Plain Language Summary can be found on the journal website.

Correspondence to: Nicholas C. Chrimes

[Email: nicholas.chrimes@universalairway.org](mailto:nicholas.chrimes@universalairway.org)

Accepted: 6 August 2026

Keywords: airway management; airway strategy; dif fi cult airway; tracheal extubation; tracheal re-intubation

[Bluesky: @Chrimesy.com](https://bsky.app/profile/Chrimesy.com)

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Re-use of this article is permitted in accordance with the Creative Commons Deed, Attribution 2.5, which does not permit commercial exploitation.

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Introdução A avaliação de risco, a formulação da estratégia e o preparo são importantes para diminuir a incidência de eventos adversos associados à extubação traqueal. O foco desta diretriz é a extubação traqueal, mas muitos dos princípios delineados são relevantes para todas as formas de descontinuação do manejo das vias aéreas (extubação traqueal; remoção de um dispositivo supraglótico; interrupção do suporte com máscara facial; e remoção de traqueostomia) e conversão entre linhas de vida das vias aéreas superiores (máscara facial; dispositivo supraglótico; e tubo traqueal) ou uma via aérea cervical.

Métodos Um grupo de trabalho internacional e multidisciplinar revisou diretrizes de via aérea existentes e a literatura publicada. Foi realizado um processo estruturado para gerar declarações de consenso de especialistas, que incluiu consulta a um grupo consultivo internacional composto por operadores e assistentes de via aérea, bem como especialistas em fatores humanos. As discrepâncias entre os resultados desses dois processos foram analisadas e reconciliadas. Foram geradas diretrizes e as recomendações foram categorizadas de acordo com o sistema de classificação da American Heart Association.

Resultados A avaliação de risco para extubação traqueal inclui avaliar o risco de hipoxemia, aspiração pulmonar e dano decorrente da estimulação das vias aéreas. O risco basal do paciente, bem como quaisquer alterações potenciais desde a intubação traqueal, deve ser considerado. Além dos riscos do paciente, fatores de risco da equipe e da situação devem ser considerados ao formular a estratégia de extubação. A extubação planejada é sempre eletiva, maximizando a capacidade de controlar o momento, o ambiente e os recursos disponíveis. Recomenda-se adiar a extubação se isso reduzir significativamente o risco. Ao substituir uma linha de vida por outra, os `procedimentos de conversão´, caracterizados pela presença de um guia contínuo para manter ou facilitar o rápido restabelecimento da ventilação alveolar, são mais seguros e preferíveis aos `procedimentos de substituição´ da via aérea, particularmente quando o manejo da via aérea é considerado `de risco´.

Discussão Estas diretrizes auxiliam profissionais de via aérea de qualquer disciplina a avaliar se a extubação traqueal é `de risco´ e a vincular isso à formulação de uma estratégia segura e eficaz que aborde os desafios específicos identificados.

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Para afiliações completas dos autores, veja o final do artigo

O Resumo em Linguagem Simples pode ser encontrado no site do periódico.

Correspondência para: Nicholas C. Chrimes

[E-mail: nicholas.chrimes@universalairway.org](mailto:nicholas.chrimes@universalairway.org)

Aceito em: 6 de agosto de 2026

Palavras-chave: manejo de vias aéreas; estratégia de via aérea; via aérea difícil; extubação traqueal; reintubação traqueal

[Bluesky: @Chrimesy.com](https://bsky.app/profile/Chrimesy.com)

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A reutilização deste artigo é permitida de acordo com a Creative Commons Deed, Attribution 2.5, que não permite exploração comercial.

- X: @EllardLouise; @AndyHiggsGAA; @CarinHagberg; @PaulBakerORSIM; @kovacsgj; @jadamlaw; @SheilaMyatra; @ProfEllenO; @AirwayOnDemand; @crossermed; @JohnCSakles; @SorbelloMax; @NicholasChrimes

Key recommendationsRecomendações-chave

  • 1 Tracheal extubation warrants an equivalent level of evaluation, strategy, preparation and vigilance to that for tracheal intubation.
  • 2 Risk evaluation for tracheal extubation should consider the patient ' s baseline risk (perceived risk based on evaluation before initiating airway management, supplemented with information gained during initiation of airway management) and any altered risks (changes to patient, team or situation risk factors since tracheal intubation).
  • 3 If achieving `airway success´ with any upper airway lifeline (facemask; supraglottic airway; or tracheal tube) following tracheal extubation is not considered `rapid and reliable,´ then that airway lifeline, and therefore tracheal extubation, should be designated `at risk´.
  • 4 The approach to extubation should provide an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia. The risk of hypoxaemia following tracheal extubation depends onthe likelihood that tracheal re-intubation is required, the likelihood that airway management is challenging andtheanticipated safe apnoea time.
  • 5 Planned tracheal extubation is always elective, providing a wide scope to minimise risk. Tracheal extubation should be deferred whenever this will signi fi cantly decrease risk.
  • 6 The tracheal extubation strategy should address whether it is appropriate to proceed with extubation, defer extubation or convert the tracheal tube to a tracheostomy. When proceeding to tracheal extubation, the strategy should comprise an intended approach to extubation combined withan approach toairway rescue.
  • 7 Deferring tracheal extubation may provide time for optimisation of patient, team and situation risk factors. Conversely, even when signi fi cant challenges with tracheal extubation are anticipated, deferral is not recommendedunlessitisexpected to decrease risks.
  • 8 When neuromuscular blocking drugs are being used, quantitative neuromuscular monitoring is recommended to con fi rm return of baseline neuromuscular function before tracheal extubation.
  • 9 Awake tracheal extubation over an airway exchange catheter is recommended if required to provide an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia.
  • 10 When a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway is in situ and substitution of upper airway lifelines is required, airway conversion is preferred over airway replacement procedures, particularly when the margin of safety from hypoxaemia is reduced.
  • 1 A extubação traqueal exige um nível equivalente de avaliação, estratégia, preparo e vigilância ao da intubação traqueal.
  • 2 A avaliação de risco para extubação traqueal deve considerar o risco basal do paciente (risco percebido com base na avaliação antes de iniciar o manejo das vias aéreas, complementado por informações obtidas durante o início do manejo das vias aéreas) e quaisquer riscos alterados (mudanças nos fatores de risco do paciente, da equipe ou da situação desde a intubação traqueal).
  • 3 Se a obtenção de `sucesso na via aérea´ com qualquer recurso de salvamento de via aérea superior (máscara facial; via aérea supraglótica; ou tubo traqueal) após a extubação traqueal não for considerada `rápida e confiável,´ então esse recurso de salvamento de via aérea e, portanto, a extubação traqueal, devem ser designados como `de risco´.
  • 4 A abordagem para a extubação deve proporcionar uma margem adequada de segurança contra hipoxemia. O risco de hipoxemia após a extubação traqueal depende da probabilidade de ser necessária reintubação traqueal, da probabilidade de o manejo das vias aéreas ser desafiador e do tempo de apneia segura previsto.
  • 5 A extubação traqueal planejada é sempre eletiva, proporcionando ampla margem para minimizar o risco. A extubação traqueal deve ser adiada sempre que isso reduzir significativamente o risco.
  • 6 A estratégia de extubação traqueal deve abordar se é apropriado prosseguir com a extubação, adiar a extubação ou converter o tubo traqueal em traqueostomia. Ao prosseguir com a extubação traqueal, a estratégia deve incluir uma abordagem pretendida para a extubação combinada com uma abordagem para resgate da via aérea.
  • 7 Adiar a extubação traqueal pode proporcionar tempo para otimização dos fatores de risco do paciente, da equipe e da situação. Por outro lado, mesmo quando são previstos desafios significativos com a extubação traqueal, o adiamento não é recomendado, a menos que se espere que diminua os riscos.
  • 8 Quando fármacos bloqueadores neuromusculares estiverem sendo usados, recomenda-se monitorização neuromuscular quantitativa para confirmar o retorno da função neuromuscular basal antes da extubação traqueal.
  • 9 Recomenda-se a extubação traqueal com o paciente acordado sobre um cateter de troca de via aérea, se necessário, para proporcionar margem adequada de segurança contra hipoxemia.
  • 10 Quando um tubo traqueal ou via aérea supraglótica está in situ e é necessária a substituição de recursos de salvamento de via aérea superior, prefere-se a conversão da via aérea em vez de procedimentos de substituição da via aérea, particularmente quando a margem de segurança contra hipoxemia está reduzida.
Chapter 2Capítulo 2

Why These GuidelinesPor que estas diretrizes

Why were these guidelines developed?Por que estas diretrizes foram desenvolvidas?

Tracheal extubation (hereafter referred to as simply extubation) outcomes have not mirrored the improvements seen in tracheal intubation outcomes. Adverse events following extubation account for a signi fi cant proportion of severe complications of airway management and are more likely to result in brain injury and death [1, 2]. Many complications of extubation result from inadequate planning [3].

A extubação traqueal (doravante referida simplesmente como extubação) não apresentou desfechos que acompanhassem as melhorias observadas nos desfechos da intubação traqueal. Eventos adversos após a extubação respondem por uma proporção significativa das complicações graves do manejo das vias aéreas e têm maior probabilidade de resultar em lesão cerebral e morte [1, 2]. Muitas complicações da extubação resultam de planejamento inadequado [3].

What guidelines currently exist?Quais diretrizes existem atualmente?

Professional groups worldwide have produced guidelines for initiating airway management, but guidance on extubation is more limited [4 - 16]. Guidelines speci fi cally addressing extubation encourage use of more conservative techniques when airway management is `at risk´ but provide limited guidance linking risk evaluation to particular approaches to extubation [14, 15].

Grupos profissionais em todo o mundo têm produzido diretrizes para o início do manejo das vias aéreas, mas a orientação sobre extubação é mais limitada [4 - 16]. Diretrizes que abordam especificamente a extubação incentivam o uso de técnicas mais conservadoras quando o manejo das vias aéreas está “em risco”, mas fornecem orientação limitada para vincular a avaliação de risco a abordagens específicas de extubação [14, 15].

How do these differ from existing guidelines?Em que diferem das diretrizes existentes?

These guidelines assist airway practitioners from any discipline to evaluate whether extubation is `at risk´ and link this to formulating a safe and effective extubation strategy that addresses the speci fi c challenges identi fi ed. The advice provided is applicable to any patient group (including adults and children) or context for care (including operating theatre, emergency department or ICU). An algorithm that facilitates providing an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia following extubation is included.

These guidelines are intended to supplement, not replace, existing published guidelines. They do not represent minimum standards of practice, nor are they a substitute for sound clinical judgement. Although they articulate key principles to inform clinical practice, there may be legitimate reasons why practitioners select alternative approaches in speci fi c contexts. All recommendations assume that airway practitioners have appropriate training and experience with the devices and techniques described, and that these are applied within their scope of practice. Recommendations regarding use of speci fi c equipment, monitoring, medications or additional staff apply where accessing the relevant resources is feasible. Where this is not the case, these recommendations should be viewed as aspirational.

Estas diretrizes auxiliam os profissionais de via aérea de qualquer disciplina a avaliar se a extubação é `de risco´ e a vincular essa avaliação à formulação de uma estratégia de extubação segura e eficaz que aborde os desafios específicos identificados. O aconselhamento fornecido é aplicável a qualquer grupo de pacientes (incluindo adultos e crianças) ou contexto de cuidado (incluindo centro cirúrgico, departamento de emergência ou ICU). Está incluído um algoritmo que facilita proporcionar uma margem adequada de segurança contra hipoxemia após a extubação.

Estas diretrizes destinam-se a complementar, e não substituir, as diretrizes publicadas existentes. Elas não representam padrões mínimos de prática, nem substituem o julgamento clínico criterioso. Embora articulem princípios fundamentais para orientar a prática clínica, pode haver razões legítimas para que os profissionais escolham abordagens alternativas em contextos específicos. Todas as recomendações pressupõem que os profissionais de via aérea tenham treinamento e experiência adequados com os dispositivos e as técnicas descritos, e que estes sejam aplicados dentro de seu escopo de prática. Recomendações quanto ao uso de equipamentos específicos, monitorização, medicamentos ou pessoal adicional aplicam-se onde o acesso aos recursos relevantes for viável. Quando isso não for o caso, essas recomendações devem ser consideradas aspiracionais.

IntroductionIntrodução

Adverse events associated with extubation are common, accounting for approximately one-third of the severe outcomes documented in the 4th National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (NAP4) in the UK, and are more likely to result in brain injury and death than those occurring during initiation of airway management [1, 17]. Improvements in tracheal intubation outcomes over the past 25 years are not re fl ected in data on adverse extubation outcomes[1, 2, 18 - 21]. Absence of an appropriate strategy is a recognised contributor to preventable mortality and serious morbidity during airway management [1, 20].

These guidelines focus on extubation, but many of the same considerations apply to removing supraglottic airway devices (hereafter referred to as simply supraglottic airways), removing a tracheostomy and to some degree, cessation of facemask support. As with tracheal intubation, extubation is not a single intervention but a process, involving stepwise progression to less secure modes of airway support (e.g. tracheal tube to supraglottic airway or facemask) as the patient progressively resumes independent maintenance of airway patency and ventilation. Planned extubation warrants an equivalent level of risk evaluation, strategy formulation, preparation and vigilance to that undertaken for tracheal intubation [1, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23].

Eventos adversos associados à extubação são comuns, representando aproximadamente um terço dos desfechos graves documentados no 4º Projeto Nacional de Auditoria do Royal College of Anaesthetists (NAP4) no Reino Unido, e têm maior probabilidade de resultar em lesão cerebral e óbito do que aqueles que ocorrem durante o início do manejo das vias aéreas [1, 17]. As melhorias nos desfechos da intubação traqueal nos últimos 25 anos não se refletem nos dados sobre desfechos adversos da extubação [1, 2, 18 - 21]. A ausência de uma estratégia apropriada é um fator contribuinte reconhecido para mortalidade evitável e morbidade grave durante o manejo das vias aéreas [1, 20].

Estas diretrizes concentram-se na extubação, mas muitas das mesmas considerações se aplicam à remoção de dispositivos supraglóticos de via aérea (doravante denominados simplesmente vias aéreas supraglóticas), à remoção de uma traqueostomia e, em certa medida, à interrupção do suporte com máscara facial. Assim como na intubação traqueal, a extubação não é uma intervenção única, mas um processo, envolvendo progressão gradual para modos menos seguros de suporte da via aérea (por exemplo, de tubo traqueal para via aérea supraglótica ou máscara facial) à medida que o paciente retoma progressivamente a manutenção independente da permeabilidade das vias aéreas e da ventilação. A extubação planejada exige um nível equivalente de avaliação de risco, formulação de estratégia, preparo e vigilância ao adotado na intubação traqueal [1, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23].

MethodsMétodos

The methods for developing the Project for Universal Management of Airways (PUMA) recommendations have been previously published [24]. An updated literature search has since been undertaken, including articles published up until the end of April 2026. As a member of the PUMA advisory group with interest in extubation who was independently developing an extubation algorithm in collaboration with NC, LE was invited to participate as lead author and the extubation algorithm was incorporated into the guidelines. Recommendations in this guideline are categorised according to the American Heart Association classi fi cation system [25] (available in online Supporting Information Appendix S1). A summary of this system and the clinical implications of each category of recommendation are outlined in online Supporting Information Appendix S2 [25].

The de fi nition and rationale for use of key terminology used in this guideline are available in the PUMA online glossary (https://www.UniversalAirway.org/glossary).

Os métodos para o desenvolvimento das recomendações do Project for Universal Management of Airways (PUMA) foram publicados anteriormente [24]. Desde então, foi realizada uma busca atualizada da literatura, incluindo artigos publicados até o final de abril de 2026. Por ser membro do grupo consultivo do PUMA com interesse em extubação e estar desenvolvendo de forma independente um algoritmo de extubação em colaboração com NC, LE foi convidado a participar como autor principal, e o algoritmo de extubação foi incorporado às diretrizes. As recomendações desta diretriz são categorizadas de acordo com o sistema de classificação da American Heart Association [25] (disponível no Apêndice S1 do Material Suplementar on-line). Um resumo desse sistema e as implicações clínicas de cada categoria de recomendação são apresentados no Apêndice S2 do Material Suplementar on-line [25].

A definição e a justificativa para o uso da terminologia-chave utilizada nesta diretriz estão disponíveis no glossário on-line do PUMA (https://www.UniversalAirway.org/glossary).

ResultsResultados

Risk evaluation for tracheal extubation

Arisk evaluation should be performed before extubation [1, 4, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23]. A general framework for considering patient, team and situation factors relevant to evaluating the risks of any episode of airway management will be provided in a later PUMA guideline. The following discussion is largely restricted to issues speci fi c to extubation.

Avaliação de risco para extubação traqueal

A avaliação de risco deve ser realizada antes da extubação [1, 4, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23]. Uma estrutura geral para considerar fatores do paciente, da equipe e da situação relevantes para avaliar os riscos de qualquer episódio de manejo das vias aéreas será fornecida em uma futura diretriz da PUMA. A discussão a seguir é amplamente restrita a questões específicas da extubação.

Chapter 3Capítulo 3

Risk EvaluationAvaliação de risco

Linking evaluation to strategyVinculando a avaliação à estratégia

Even the most comprehensive and well-documented evaluation of the risks of airway management is of minimal value if the risks identi fi ed are not re fl ected in the airway strategy. Failure to develop an airway strategy that addresses identi fi ed risks appropriately is a recognised contributor to preventable mortality and serious morbidity during airway management [1, 3, 20, 26]. To facilitate linking the risk evaluation to the formulation of an appropriate extubation strategy, four questions should be considered.

Is it appropriate to consider tracheal extubation?: Determining whether it is appropriate to consider extubation requires evaluation of the domains outlined in Table 1 [1, 14, 15, 22, 23, 27 - 33]. These preconditions should be satis fi ed before considering extubation [1, 14, 15, 23].

Is tracheal extubation `at risk´?: Determining whether extubation is `at risk´ involves considering the risk of hypoxaemia, pulmonary aspiration, harm from airway stimulation and any other identi fi ed risks. Evaluating each of these elements requires consideration of both the patient ' s baseline risk and any potential changes to patient, team or situation factors since tracheal intubation. If the risk of one or more aspects of airway management is increased signi fi cantly from baseline, extubation should be designated as `at risk´. This assessment is discussed in further detail below.

Will deferring tracheal extubation decrease risk?: Planned extubation is always elective, maximising the opportunity to control the timing, environment and resources available. Consideration should be given to whether improvement in patient, team or situation risk factors will signi fi cantly reduce the risks of extubation [1, 23, 30, 34].

Table 1 Preconditions for considering tracheal extubation.

DomainPreconditions
Respiratory• Ability to maintain adequate oxygen saturations at acceptable inspired oxygen concentration, positive end-expiratory pressure and pressure support
• Ventilation adequate* to maintain appropriate arterial carbon dioxide
• Tracheal aspirates minimal
Haemodynamic• Cardiovascular stability
• No major ongoing blood loss
Neurological• Adequate* conscious state anticipated
• Return of baseline neuromuscular function anticipated
• Adequate* pain control without restriction to ventilation or excessive sedation anticipated
Metabolic• Adequate* body temperature
• Adequate* acid–base balance
Surgical• Imminent tracheal re-intubation not anticipated in context of challenging airway management (i.e. return to operating theatre; radiology investigations; intra- or interhospital transport)
• No delayed closure of major body cavities (i.e. open abdomen, open chest)
Resources• Team and situation factors are adequate* to safely extubate, observe and restore the patient's airway if needed
Trajectory and stability• No anticipated significant deterioration in any of the above domains within the next 24 h, resulting in potential for airway management (e.g. evolving sepsis)
DomínioPré-condições
Respiratório• Capacidade de manter saturações de oxigênio adequadas com concentração inspirada de oxigênio, pressão expiratória final positiva e pressão de suporte aceitáveis
• Ventilação adequada para manter níveis apropriados de dióxido de carbono arterial
• Aspirado traqueal mínimo
Hemodinâmico• Estabilidade cardiovascular
• Sem perda sanguínea contínua significativa
Neurológico• Nível de consciência adequado previsto
• Retorno da função neuromuscular basal previsto
• Controle adequado da dor sem restrição à ventilação ou sedação excessiva previsto
Metabólico• Temperatura corporal adequada
• Equilíbrio ácido-base adequado
Cirúrgico• Reintubação traqueal iminente não prevista no contexto de manejo de via aérea difícil (isto é, retorno ao centro cirúrgico; exames radiológicos; transporte intra-hospitalar ou inter-hospitalar)
• Sem fechamento tardio de grandes cavidades corporais (isto é, abdome aberto, tórax aberto)
Recursos• Fatores de equipe e de situação são adequados
Trajetória e estabilidade• Não se antecipa deterioração significativa em nenhum dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial de manejo da via aérea (p. ex., sepse em evolução)

How can an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia be provided following tracheal extubation?: Risk evaluation inevitably involves a degree of uncertainty. The margin of safety from hypoxaemia re fl ects the likelihood that the patient will experience harm from desaturation if one or more elements of airway management prove unexpectedly more challenging than the risk evaluation suggests. When determining margin of safety for hypoxaemia following extubation, the practitioner should consider both the anticipated safe apnoea time and their con fi dence in the assessment of the anticipated challenges with each of the upper airway lifelines (facemask; supraglottic airway; and tracheal tube), noting that facemask ventilation and/or supraglottic airway insertion maynothavebeenattemptedduringtracheal intubation.

Mesmo a avaliação mais abrangente e bem documentada dos riscos do manejo das vias aéreas tem valor mínimo se os riscos identificados não forem refletidos na estratégia de via aérea. A falha em desenvolver uma estratégia de via aérea que aborde adequadamente os riscos identificados é um fator reconhecido que contribui para mortalidade evitável e morbidade grave durante o manejo das vias aéreas [1, 3, 20, 26]. Para facilitar a vinculação da avaliação de risco à formulação de uma estratégia adequada de extubação, quatro perguntas devem ser consideradas.

É apropriado considerar a extubação traqueal?: Determinar se é apropriado considerar a extubação exige a avaliação dos domínios descritos na Tabela 1 [1, 14, 15, 22, 23, 27 - 33]. Essas pré-condições devem ser satisfeitas antes de se considerar a extubação [1, 14, 15, 23].

A extubação traqueal é "de risco"?: Determinar se a extubação é "de risco" envolve considerar o risco de hipoxemia, aspiração pulmonar, dano por estimulação das vias aéreas e quaisquer outros riscos identificados. A avaliação de cada um desses elementos exige considerar tanto o risco basal do paciente quanto quaisquer alterações potenciais nos fatores relacionados ao paciente, à equipe ou à situação desde a intubação traqueal. Se o risco de um ou mais aspectos do manejo das vias aéreas estiver significativamente aumentado em relação ao basal, a extubação deve ser designada como "de risco". Essa avaliação é discutida em mais detalhes adiante.

Adiar a extubação traqueal reduzirá o risco?: A extubação planejada é sempre eletiva, maximizando a oportunidade de controlar o momento, o ambiente e os recursos disponíveis. Deve-se considerar se a melhora dos fatores de risco relacionados ao paciente, à equipe ou à situação reduzirá significativamente os riscos da extubação [1, 23, 30, 34].

Tabela 1 Pré-condições para considerar a extubação traqueal.

DomainPreconditions
Respiratory• Ability to maintain adequate oxygen saturations at acceptable inspired oxygen concentration, positive end-expiratory pressure and pressure support
• Ventilation adequate* to maintain appropriate arterial carbon dioxide
• Tracheal aspirates minimal
Haemodynamic• Cardiovascular stability
• No major ongoing blood loss
Neurological• Adequate* conscious state anticipated
• Return of baseline neuromuscular function anticipated
• Adequate* pain control without restriction to ventilation or excessive sedation anticipated
Metabolic• Adequate* body temperature
• Adequate* acid–base balance
Surgical• Imminent tracheal re-intubation not anticipated in context of challenging airway management (i.e. return to operating theatre; radiology investigations; intra- or interhospital transport)
• No delayed closure of major body cavities (i.e. open abdomen, open chest)
Resources• Team and situation factors are adequate* to safely extubate, observe and restore the patient's airway if needed
Trajectory and stability• No anticipated significant deterioration in any of the above domains within the next 24 h, resulting in potential for airway management (e.g. evolving sepsis)
DomínioPré-condições
Respiratório• Capacidade de manter saturações de oxigênio adequadas com concentração inspirada de oxigênio, pressão expiratória final positiva e pressão de suporte aceitáveis
• Ventilação adequada para manter níveis apropriados de dióxido de carbono arterial
• Aspirado traqueal mínimo
Hemodinâmico• Estabilidade cardiovascular
• Sem perda sanguínea contínua significativa
Neurológico• Nível de consciência adequado previsto
• Retorno da função neuromuscular basal previsto
• Controle adequado da dor sem restrição à ventilação ou sedação excessiva previsto
Metabólico• Temperatura corporal adequada
• Equilíbrio ácido-base adequado
Cirúrgico• Reintubação traqueal iminente não prevista no contexto de manejo de via aérea difícil (isto é, retorno ao centro cirúrgico; exames radiológicos; transporte intra-hospitalar ou inter-hospitalar)
• Sem fechamento tardio de grandes cavidades corporais (isto é, abdome aberto, tórax aberto)
Recursos• Fatores de equipe e de situação são adequados
Trajetória e estabilidade• Não se antecipa deterioração significativa em nenhum dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial de manejo da via aérea (p. ex., sepse em evolução)

Como se pode proporcionar uma margem adequada de segurança contra hipoxemia após a extubação traqueal?: A avaliação de risco inevitavelmente envolve um grau de incerteza. A margem de segurança contra hipoxemia reflete a probabilidade de o paciente sofrer dano por dessaturação se um ou mais elementos do manejo das vias aéreas se mostrarem inesperadamente mais desafiadores do que a avaliação de risco sugere. Ao determinar a margem de segurança contra hipoxemia após a extubação, o profissional deve considerar tanto o tempo de apneia segura antecipado quanto sua confiança na avaliação dos desafios antecipados com cada uma das linhas de vida das vias aéreas superiores (máscara facial; via aérea supraglótica; e tubo traqueal), observando que a ventilação com máscara facial e/ou a inserção de via aérea supraglótica podem não ter sido tentadas durante a intubação traqueal.

Risk of hypoxaemiaRisco de hipóxia

The risk of hypoxaemia following extubation is in fl uenced by the likelihood that subsequent airway management is required, the likelihood that it will be challenging, and the anticipated safe apnoea time. These risks are often interrelated.

Likelihood that subsequent airway management is required: For a variable period following extubation, all patients remain at elevated risk of requiring tracheal reintubation, including the need for associated airway support with a facemask or supraglottic airway. Tracheal re-intubation may be required in up to 20% of patients who have undergone extubation in ICU [19, 27, 35, 36]. The need for tracheal re-intubation incurs a risk of harm from compromised airway patency, airway protection or respiratory function, and exposes the patient to an additional episode of airway management with potentially increased risks relative to those at the initial tracheal intubation episode.

The likelihood that tracheal re-intubation is required is in fl uenced by airwayand non-airway-related factors (Table 2) [4, 14, 15, 22, 27 - 33, 37 - 42], both of which should beassessed before extubation [4, 14, 15, 31 - 33, 37 - 39].

Airway swelling may develop and progress rapidly in susceptible patients. Whilst fl exible endoscopy via the tracheal tube can be useful to evaluate the airway distal to the tip of the tracheal tube [15, 43], to assess the glottis and supraglottis, the tracheal tube needs to be withdrawn. Once the bronchoscope tip is withdrawn above the glottis, coughing or other movement can easily misalign the bronchoscope and laryngeal inlet, impeding tracheal re-intubation [43, 44]. It may also prove impossible to reinsert the original tube because of swelling. Thus, if potential impediments to maintaining airway patency have already been identi fi ed, withdrawing the tracheal tube under endoscopic vision is not a reliable precaution against airway loss [4, 14, 33, 37 - 39]. Similarly, nasendoscopic or laryngoscopic evaluation of the glottis and supraglottis for swelling before extubation provides only limited reassurance. Where concerns exist about the adequacy of subglottic calibre, a cuff leak test can be performed;

Table 2 Airway and non-airway-related patient factors to be evaluated on history and airway evaluation before tracheal extubation or conversion.

AIRWAY-RELATED FACTORS
History• Original risk evaluation (before tracheal intubation) including pre-existing anatomical factors and challenges encountered during previous episodes of airway management.
• Challenges encountered during tracheal intubation
• Potential changes in risk factors:
• arising since tracheal intubation
• predisposing to development or progression of challenges post-extubation, including discussion with surgeon where relevant (e.g. likely progression of swelling; risk of bleeding; residual infection)
Airway evaluation
External airway evaluationStandard airway evaluation with particular attention to additional factors occurring since tracheal intubation (e.g. swelling; jaw wiring; halo brace). While it is not necessary to repeat external airway examination routinely before extubation, re-evaluation is recommended where elements may have changed since tracheal intubation. Re-evaluation should also be considered if there has been a prolonged interval between tracheal intubation and extubation or a change in airway operator.
• Where relevant, confirm if pharyngeal packs placed and ensure their removal
Evaluation of supraglottis• Consider need for videolaryngoscopy to assess swelling / trauma / bleeding (including examination behind the soft palate in patients `at risk´ of a `coroner's clot´) in appropriate patients. Beware false reassurance about ability to visualise larynx with tracheal tube in situ
• Consider flexible nasendoscopy
Evaluation of glottis/ subglottis• Consider cuff leak test
• Consider ultrasound measurement of laryngeal air-column width difference
Evaluation of lower airway• Consider flexible endoscopy via the tracheal tube to detect secretions; blood; aspiration; airway trauma; and assess tracheal tube depth (especially if use of airway exchange catheter planned)
• Consider chest X-ray to detect pulmonary aspiration; gastric distention; lung collapse; pneumothorax; surgical emphysema
NON-AIRWAY RELATED FACTORS
Respiratory• Pre-existing or newly acquired respiratory disease impacting oxygen saturation or ventilation
• Need for ongoing tracheal suction due to secretions or haemoptysis
• Pre-existing or newly acquired thoracic or chest wall deformity or restriction
Neurological and behavioural• Pre-existing or newly acquired deficits in neuromuscular function
• Anticipated conscious state following cessation of sedation or anaesthesia
• Anticipated level of patient co-operation following cessation of sedation or anaesthesia
• Likelihood of adequate pain control
Trajectory and stability• Anticipated significant deterioration in any of the above domains within the next 24 h, resulting in potential for airway management the interpretation of this can result in partial or complete airway obstruction due to 23, 45–52]. While the absence laryngospasm [29, 44, 58, 59]. Dysfunctional laryngeal an increased risk of airway reflexes can result in stridor due to paradoxical vocal cord removed, even the presence of a motion [14, 60, 61].
Avaliação da via aérea
Avaliação externa da via aéreaAvaliação padrão da via aérea com atenção particular a fatores adicionais que surgiram desde a intubação traqueal (p. ex., edema; fixação maxilomandibular com fios; halo craniano). Embora não seja necessário repetir rotineiramente o exame externo da via aérea antes da extubação, recomenda-se a reavaliação quando elementos possam ter mudado desde a intubação traqueal. A reavaliação também deve ser considerada se tiver havido intervalo prolongado entre a intubação traqueal e a extubação ou mudança no operador da via aérea.
Avaliação da supraglote• Quando relevante, confirmar se foram colocados tampões faríngeos e garantir sua remoção
• Considerar necessidade de videolaringoscopia para avaliar edema/trauma/sangramento (incluindo exame atrás do palato mole em pacientes “de risco” de “coágulo de legista”) em pacientes apropriados. Cuidado com a falsa segurança quanto à capacidade de visualizar a laringe com o tubo traqueal in situ
• Considerar nasoendoscopia flexível
Avaliação da glote/subglote• Considerar teste de vazamento do balonete (cuff leak test)
• Considerar mensuração ultrassonográfica da diferença de largura da coluna de ar laríngea
Avaliação da via aérea inferior• Considerar endoscopia flexível através do tubo traqueal para detectar secreções; sangue; aspiração; trauma da via aérea; e avaliar a profundidade do tubo traqueal (especialmente se planejado o uso de cateter trocador de via aérea)
• Considerar radiografia de tórax para detectar aspiração pulmonar; distensão gástrica; colapso pulmonar; pneumotórax; enfisema subcutâneo
Respiratório• Doença respiratória preexistente ou recém-adquirida com impacto na saturação de oxigênio ou na ventilação
• Necessidade de aspiração traqueal contínua devido a secreções ou hemoptise
• Deformidade ou restrição torácica ou da parede torácica preexistente ou recém-adquirida
Neurológico e comportamental• Déficits preexistentes ou recém-adquiridos na função neuromuscular
• Estado de consciência antecipado após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Nível de cooperação do paciente antecipado após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Probabilidade de controle adequado da dor
Trajetória e estabilidade• Deterioração significativa antecipada em qualquer um dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial para manejo da via aérea
Respiratório• Doença respiratória preexistente ou adquirida recentemente impactando a saturação de oxigênio ou a ventilação
• Necessidade de aspiração traqueal contínua devido a secreções ou hemoptise
• Deformidade ou restrição torácica ou da parede torácica preexistente ou adquirida recentemente
Neurológico e comportamental• Déficits preexistentes ou adquiridos recentemente na função neuromuscular
• Estado de consciência previsto após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Nível previsto de cooperação do paciente após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Probabilidade de controle adequado da dor
Trajetória e estabilidade• Antecipar deterioração significativa em qualquer um dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial para manejo da via aérea; a interpretação disso pode resultar em obstrução parcial ou completa da via aérea devido a 23, 45–52]. Embora a ausência de laringospasmo [29, 44, 58, 59]. Disfunção laríngea um risco aumentado de reflexos da via aérea pode resultar em estridor devido a movimento paradoxal das cordas vocais removido, mesmo a presença de um movimento [14, 60, 61].

O risco de hipoxemia após a extubação é influenciado pela probabilidade de o manejo subsequente das vias aéreas ser necessário, pela probabilidade de esse manejo ser desafiador e pelo tempo de apneia segura antecipado. Esses riscos frequentemente estão inter-relacionados.

Probabilidade de o manejo subsequente das vias aéreas ser necessário: Por um período variável após a extubação, todos os pacientes permanecem com risco elevado de necessitar de reintubação traqueal, incluindo a necessidade de suporte associado às vias aéreas com máscara facial ou via aérea supraglótica. A reintubação traqueal pode ser necessária em até 20% dos pacientes submetidos à extubação na UTI [19, 27, 35, 36]. A necessidade de reintubação traqueal acarreta risco de dano por comprometimento da permeabilidade das vias aéreas, da proteção das vias aéreas ou da função respiratória, e expõe o paciente a um episódio adicional de manejo das vias aéreas com riscos potencialmente maiores em relação aos do episódio inicial de intubação traqueal.

A probabilidade de a reintubação traqueal ser necessária é influenciada por fatores relacionados e não relacionados às vias aéreas (Tabela 2) [4, 14, 15, 22, 27 - 33, 37 - 42], os quais devem ser avaliados antes da extubação [4, 14, 15, 31 - 33, 37 - 39].

O edema das vias aéreas pode se desenvolver e progredir rapidamente em pacientes suscetíveis. Embora a endoscopia fl exível através do tubo traqueal possa ser útil para avaliar a via aérea distal à ponta do tubo traqueal [15, 43], para avaliar a glote e a supraglote, o tubo traqueal precisa ser retirado. Uma vez que a ponta do broncoscópio é retirada acima da glote, tosse ou outro movimento pode facilmente desalinhar o broncoscópio e a entrada laríngea, impedindo a reintubação traqueal [43, 44]. Também pode ser impossível reinserir o tubo original por causa do edema. Assim, se possíveis impedimentos à manutenção da permeabilidade das vias aéreas já tiverem sido identificados, retirar o tubo traqueal sob visão endoscópica não é uma precaução confiável contra a perda das vias aéreas [4, 14, 33, 37 - 39]. Da mesma forma, a avaliação nasoendoscópica ou laringoscópica da glote e da supraglote para detectar edema antes da extubação fornece apenas segurança limitada. Quando houver preocupações quanto à adequação do calibre subglótico, um teste de vazamento do balonete pode ser realizado;

Tabela 2 Fatores do paciente relacionados e não relacionados às vias aéreas a serem avaliados na anamnese e na avaliação das vias aéreas antes da extubação traqueal ou conversão.

AIRWAY-RELATED FACTORS
History• Original risk evaluation (before tracheal intubation) including pre-existing anatomical factors and challenges encountered during previous episodes of airway management.
• Challenges encountered during tracheal intubation
• Potential changes in risk factors:
• arising since tracheal intubation
• predisposing to development or progression of challenges post-extubation, including discussion with surgeon where relevant (e.g. likely progression of swelling; risk of bleeding; residual infection)
Airway evaluation
External airway evaluationStandard airway evaluation with particular attention to additional factors occurring since tracheal intubation (e.g. swelling; jaw wiring; halo brace). While it is not necessary to repeat external airway examination routinely before extubation, re-evaluation is recommended where elements may have changed since tracheal intubation. Re-evaluation should also be considered if there has been a prolonged interval between tracheal intubation and extubation or a change in airway operator.
• Where relevant, confirm if pharyngeal packs placed and ensure their removal
Evaluation of supraglottis• Consider need for videolaryngoscopy to assess swelling / trauma / bleeding (including examination behind the soft palate in patients `at risk´ of a `coroner's clot´) in appropriate patients. Beware false reassurance about ability to visualise larynx with tracheal tube in situ
• Consider flexible nasendoscopy
Evaluation of glottis/ subglottis• Consider cuff leak test
• Consider ultrasound measurement of laryngeal air-column width difference
Evaluation of lower airway• Consider flexible endoscopy via the tracheal tube to detect secretions; blood; aspiration; airway trauma; and assess tracheal tube depth (especially if use of airway exchange catheter planned)
• Consider chest X-ray to detect pulmonary aspiration; gastric distention; lung collapse; pneumothorax; surgical emphysema
NON-AIRWAY RELATED FACTORS
Respiratory• Pre-existing or newly acquired respiratory disease impacting oxygen saturation or ventilation
• Need for ongoing tracheal suction due to secretions or haemoptysis
• Pre-existing or newly acquired thoracic or chest wall deformity or restriction
Neurological and behavioural• Pre-existing or newly acquired deficits in neuromuscular function
• Anticipated conscious state following cessation of sedation or anaesthesia
• Anticipated level of patient co-operation following cessation of sedation or anaesthesia
• Likelihood of adequate pain control
Trajectory and stability• Anticipated significant deterioration in any of the above domains within the next 24 h, resulting in potential for airway management the interpretation of this can result in partial or complete airway obstruction due to 23, 45–52]. While the absence laryngospasm [29, 44, 58, 59]. Dysfunctional laryngeal an increased risk of airway reflexes can result in stridor due to paradoxical vocal cord removed, even the presence of a motion [14, 60, 61].
Avaliação da via aérea
Avaliação externa da via aéreaAvaliação padrão da via aérea com atenção particular a fatores adicionais que surgiram desde a intubação traqueal (p. ex., edema; fixação maxilomandibular com fios; halo craniano). Embora não seja necessário repetir rotineiramente o exame externo da via aérea antes da extubação, recomenda-se a reavaliação quando elementos possam ter mudado desde a intubação traqueal. A reavaliação também deve ser considerada se tiver havido intervalo prolongado entre a intubação traqueal e a extubação ou mudança no operador da via aérea.
Avaliação da supraglote• Quando relevante, confirmar se foram colocados tampões faríngeos e garantir sua remoção
• Considerar necessidade de videolaringoscopia para avaliar edema/trauma/sangramento (incluindo exame atrás do palato mole em pacientes “de risco” de “coágulo de legista”) em pacientes apropriados. Cuidado com a falsa segurança quanto à capacidade de visualizar a laringe com o tubo traqueal in situ
• Considerar nasoendoscopia flexível
Avaliação da glote/subglote• Considerar teste de vazamento do balonete (cuff leak test)
• Considerar mensuração ultrassonográfica da diferença de largura da coluna de ar laríngea
Avaliação da via aérea inferior• Considerar endoscopia flexível através do tubo traqueal para detectar secreções; sangue; aspiração; trauma da via aérea; e avaliar a profundidade do tubo traqueal (especialmente se planejado o uso de cateter trocador de via aérea)
• Considerar radiografia de tórax para detectar aspiração pulmonar; distensão gástrica; colapso pulmonar; pneumotórax; enfisema subcutâneo
Respiratório• Doença respiratória preexistente ou recém-adquirida com impacto na saturação de oxigênio ou na ventilação
• Necessidade de aspiração traqueal contínua devido a secreções ou hemoptise
• Deformidade ou restrição torácica ou da parede torácica preexistente ou recém-adquirida
Neurológico e comportamental• Déficits preexistentes ou recém-adquiridos na função neuromuscular
• Estado de consciência antecipado após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Nível de cooperação do paciente antecipado após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Probabilidade de controle adequado da dor
Trajetória e estabilidade• Deterioração significativa antecipada em qualquer um dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial para manejo da via aérea
Respiratório• Doença respiratória preexistente ou adquirida recentemente impactando a saturação de oxigênio ou a ventilação
• Necessidade de aspiração traqueal contínua devido a secreções ou hemoptise
• Deformidade ou restrição torácica ou da parede torácica preexistente ou adquirida recentemente
Neurológico e comportamental• Déficits preexistentes ou adquiridos recentemente na função neuromuscular
• Estado de consciência previsto após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Nível previsto de cooperação do paciente após a interrupção da sedação ou anestesia
• Probabilidade de controle adequado da dor
Trajetória e estabilidade• Antecipar deterioração significativa em qualquer um dos domínios acima nas próximas 24 h, resultando em potencial para manejo da via aérea; a interpretação disso pode resultar em obstrução parcial ou completa da via aérea devido a 23, 45–52]. Embora a ausência de laringospasmo [29, 44, 58, 59]. Disfunção laríngea um risco aumentado de reflexos da via aérea pode resultar em estridor devido a movimento paradoxal das cordas vocais removido, mesmo a presença de um movimento [14, 60, 61].

Airway-related factorsFatores relacionados à via aérea

HistoryHistória clínica

  • Original risk evaluation (before tracheal intubation) including pre-existing anatomical factors and challenges encountered during previous episodes of airway management.
  • Challenges encountered during tracheal intubation
  • Potential changes in risk factors:
  • arising since tracheal intubation
  • predisposing to development or progression of challenges post-extubation, including discussion with surgeon where relevant (e.g. likely progression of swelling; risk of bleeding; residual infection)
  • Avaliação inicial do risco (antes da intubação traqueal), incluindo fatores anatômicos preexistentes e desafios encontrados durante episódios anteriores de manejo da via aérea.
  • Desafios encontrados durante a intubação traqueal
  • Possíveis alterações nos fatores de risco:
  • surgidas desde a intubação traqueal
  • predisponentes ao desenvolvimento ou à progressão de desafios pós-extubação, incluindo discussão com o cirurgião quando relevante (p. ex., provável progressão de edema; risco de sangramento; infecção residual)

Non-airway-related factorsFatores não relacionados à via aérea

however, evidence supporting the interpretation of this evaluation is con fl icting [15, 23, 45 - 52]. While the absence of a cuff leak typically indicates an increased risk of airway loss if the tracheal tube is removed, even the presence of a large leak should not be used to justify extubation when other factors indicate a signi fi cant risk exists [46]. Ultrasound measurement to identify airway narrowing using the laryngeal air-column width difference may provide useful information in appropriately skilled hands [51, 53 - 55].

Following extubation, airway re fl exes may be reduced, exaggerated or dysfunctional [14], any of which may increase the risk that tracheal re-intubation is required [14, 56]. Reduced upper airway re fl exes may result in compromised airway patency and increase the risk of obstruction. Reduced laryngeal re fl exes increase the risk of pulmonary aspiration [57]. Exaggerated laryngeal re fl exes can result in partial or complete airway obstruction due to laryngospasm [29, 44, 58, 59]. Dysfunctional laryngeal re fl exes can result in stridor due to paradoxical vocal cord motion [14, 60, 61].

Likelihood that subsequent airway management is challenging: The potential need for airway rescue is inherent to every episode of tracheal intubation. When considering the risk of hypoxaemia following extubation, in addition to considering the potential for challenges to arise when reinserting the tracheal tube, the possibility of encountering challenges with ventilation using a facemask or supraglottic airway must also be considered [1]. Anticipated challenges with ventilation through a facemask or supraglottic airway also increase the risk that the process of tracheal re-intubation is challenging by potentially increasing the urgency of tracheal re-intubation and via the phenomenon of composite failure whereby the occurrence of challenges with one lifeline predisposes to challenges with the others [26].

Following any attempt at airway rescue, `airway success´ is identi fi ed by con fi rming the presence of alveolar ventilation in combination with the ability to maintain adequate blood oxygen saturation. Prior to extubation, a decision should be made whether achieving airway success with each lifeline is expected to be `rapid and reliable´ and whether neck rescue is anticipated to be straightforward, based on re-evaluation of patient, team and situation factors [1, 15, 39, 42, 62]. To qualify as rapid, the projected time to establish alveolar ventilation using each lifeline should approximate that expected for routine performance by a skilled operator. When concluding that airway success can be reliably achieved, the airway operator should expect that a stable airway could be established with a single attempt at that lifeline if necessary.

Determining that achieving airway success is expected to be rapid and reliable does not necessarily imply that no challenges have been identi fi ed with the relevant lifeline, only that the operator is con fi dent that they can be overcome readily. Thus, even if airway management using a given lifeline is considered advanced or complex, requiring speci fi c technical expertise or specialised equipment, it is still reasonable for an appropriately skilled operator to reach the conclusion that airway success will be rapid and reliable in the presence of the necessary resources and adequate preparation. For example, despite a patient having adverse anatomical indicators on physical examination, an airway operator may be con fi dent that with adequate positioning, appropriate equipment and skilled assistance, tracheal re-intubation can still be rapidly and reliably achieved. Thus, this assessment legitimately involves subjective considerations that may lead the same operator evaluating the same patient to answer differently, based on the team or situation factors that will be present in a given context.

Judging whether airway management via each of the three lifelines is expected to be rapid and reliable requires consideration of whether each of these was challenging during tracheal intubation and whether they could subsequently have been compromised further. If achieving airway success with any lifeline is not considered rapid and reliable, then it, and therefore extubation, should be designated `at risk´.

When assessing the risks of airway management following extubation, information about whether challenges were encountered with any lifelines attempted during

tracheal intubation is typically available. Where the airway operator responsible for extubation was not involved with tracheal intubation, this information should be sought [14, 22, 29]. In the absence of a compelling justi fi cation to do otherwise, any lifelines that were challenging during tracheal intubation should, by default, be designated `at risk´ for airway management following extubation [14, 29, 42].

While consideration of the skill level of the airway operator performing the initial tracheal intubation is clearly relevant, caution is advised in attributing challenges encountered during tracheal intubation exclusively to the skill level of another operator. Previous challenges should not be discounted unless an obvious contributing factor has beenresolved [26, 63].

Risk factors may also vary substantially between tracheal intubation and extubation, even when this interval is short. Previous challenges can be exacerbated, or new challenges may arise despite tracheal intubation having been uneventful. Changes in environment or time of day since tracheal intubation may impact team and situation factors. Patient factors may vary for multiple reasons. For example, patients may be less cooperative due to sedation, airway stimulation, pain or hypoxaemia. Processes occurring subsequent to tracheal intubation can in fl uence anatomical risk factors acutely (Box 1) [1, 15, 23, 30, 31, 34, 43, 64 - 77]. Progressive anatomical distortion, due to bleeding or swelling, can in fl uence both the risk that airway management is required and the risk that it will be challenging [15, 78 - 82]. If surgical interventions result in it being unfeasible to reproduce the conditions at tracheal intubation (e.g. cervical fusion) or impede airway access (e.g. halo brace), the operator should consider the increased potential for challenges with airway rescue [29, 79, 83 - 85]. Following extubation, anatomical risk factors may progress; therefore, their impact should be considered not just at the time of extubation but over the entire interval that the patient remains at increased risk of requiring subsequent airway management [15, 78 - 82].

Caution should be exercised when drawing conclusions regarding ability to obtain a view of the larynx while a tracheal tube is in situ [30, 86, 87]. Performing laryngoscopy in a patient with a tracheal tube in situ may provide false reassurance about the ease of visualising the glottis due to the existing tracheal tube splinting the airway, displacing the larynx posteriorly and providing an impermanent cue to its location [14]. Glottic oedema may be underestimated with a tracheal tube in situ and may `remould´ after removal of the tracheal tube, worsening glottic access [88, 89].

Box 1 Alterations to anatomical risks. Processes occurring subsequent to tracheal intubation with potential to impact anatomical risk factors.

Airway trauma: trauma to the airway or adjacent structures may lead to oedema; haematoma; soiling with blood/clot; tissue damage; vocal cord/recurrent laryngeal nerve injury; distorted airway anatomy; impaired venous/lymphatic drainage; and/ or restricted head and neck movement.

Traumamayresultfrom:

  • Airway instrumentation at tracheal intubation (laryngoscopy; tracheal intubation; supraglottic airway placement; excessive size of airway device; excessive cuff pressure; multiple instrumentations; suboptimal positioning of the airway device).
  • Nasal instrumentation (tracheal tube; nasogastric tube; temperature probe; nasopharyngeal airway; surgical instruments).
  • Oesophageal instrumentation (nasogastric tube; transoesophageal echocardiography probe; endoscopes; surgical instruments).
  • Surgery in or near the airway: (airway surgery; faciomaxillary surgery; thyroid surgery; cervical spine surgery; carotid surgery; other head and neck surgery). Increased duration of surgery may elevate risk.
  • Recent airway, head or neck injury: may lead to evolving airway compromise or distortion following tracheal intubation.
  • Excessive patient movement (e.g. in ICU) or attempted phonation with tracheal tube in situ.

Evolving airway pathology: infection; haematoma; burns; angioedema/anaphylaxis.

Dependentpositioning: prone or head down.

Fluid shifts: massive transfusion; fl uid overload.

Impaired airway access: halo brace; guardian suture; intermaxillary fi xation device.

entretanto, as evidências que apoiam a interpretação dessa avaliação são conflitantes [15, 23, 45 - 52]. Embora a ausência de vazamento do cuff tipicamente indique um risco aumentado de perda da via aérea se o tubo traqueal for removido, mesmo a presença de um grande vazamento não deve ser usada para justificar a extubação quando outros fatores indicarem que existe um risco significativo [46]. A ultrassonografia para identificar estreitamento da via aérea usando a diferença de largura da coluna de ar laríngea pode fornecer informações úteis em mãos adequadamente treinadas [51, 53 - 55].

Após a extubação, os reflexos da via aérea podem estar reduzidos, exagerados ou disfuncionais [14], qualquer um dos quais pode aumentar o risco de ser necessária a reintubação traqueal [14, 56]. Reflexos reduzidos da via aérea superior podem resultar em comprometimento da permeabilidade da via aérea e aumentar o risco de obstrução. Reflexos laríngeos reduzidos aumentam o risco de aspiração pulmonar [57]. Reflexos laríngeos exagerados podem resultar em obstrução parcial ou completa da via aérea devido a laringospasmo [29, 44, 58, 59]. Reflexos laríngeos disfuncionais podem resultar em estridor devido ao movimento paradoxal das cordas vocais [14, 60, 61].

Probabilidade de que o manejo subsequente da via aérea seja desafiador: A necessidade potencial de resgate da via aérea é inerente a cada episódio de intubação traqueal. Ao considerar o risco de hipoxemia após a extubação, além de considerar o potencial de surgirem desafios ao reinserir o tubo traqueal, também deve ser considerada a possibilidade de encontrar desafios na ventilação com máscara facial ou via aérea supraglótica [1]. Desafios antecipados na ventilação com máscara facial ou via aérea supraglótica também aumentam o risco de que o processo de reintubação traqueal seja desafiador, potencialmente aumentando a urgência da reintubação traqueal e por meio do fenômeno de falha composta, pelo qual a ocorrência de desafios com uma via de resgate predispõe a desafios com as demais [26].

Após qualquer tentativa de resgate da via aérea, o `sucesso da via aérea´ é identificado confirmando-se a presença de ventilação alveolar em combinação com a capacidade de manter uma saturação adequada de oxigênio no sangue. Antes da extubação, deve-se decidir se se espera que o alcance do sucesso da via aérea com cada via de resgate seja `rápido e confiável´ e se o resgate cervical é antecipado como simples, com base na reavaliação de fatores do paciente, da equipe e da situação [1, 15, 39, 42, 62]. Para qualificar-se como rápido, o tempo projetado para estabelecer a ventilação alveolar usando cada via de resgate deve aproximar-se daquele esperado para o desempenho rotineiro por um operador habilidoso. Ao concluir que o sucesso da via aérea pode ser alcançado de forma confiável, o operador da via aérea deve esperar que uma via aérea estável possa ser estabelecida com uma única tentativa com essa via de resgate, se necessário.

Determinar que se espera que o alcance do sucesso da via aérea seja rápido e confiável não implica necessariamente que nenhum desafio tenha sido identificado com a via de resgate relevante, apenas que o operador está confiante de que eles podem ser prontamente superados. Assim, mesmo que o manejo da via aérea usando uma determinada via de resgate seja considerado avançado ou complexo, exigindo conhecimento técnico específico ou equipamento especializado, ainda é razoável que um operador adequadamente habilitado conclua que o sucesso da via aérea será rápido e confiável na presença dos recursos necessários e de preparo adequado. Por exemplo, apesar de um paciente apresentar indicadores anatômicos adversos no exame físico, um operador da via aérea pode estar confiante de que, com posicionamento adequado, equipamento apropriado e assistência qualificada, a reintubação traqueal ainda pode ser alcançada de forma rápida e confiável. Assim, esta avaliação envolve legitimamente considerações subjetivas que podem levar o mesmo operador avaliando o mesmo paciente a responder de forma diferente, com base nos fatores da equipe ou da situação que estarão presentes em um dado contexto.

Julgar se se espera que o manejo da via aérea por cada uma das três vias de resgate seja rápido e confiável requer considerar se cada uma delas foi desafiadora durante a intubação traqueal e se elas poderiam ter sido subsequentemente comprometidas ainda mais. Se o alcance do sucesso da via aérea com qualquer via de resgate não for considerado rápido e confiável, então ela, e portanto a extubação, deve ser designada como `em risco´.

Ao avaliar os riscos do manejo da via aérea após a extubação, tipicamente está disponível a informação sobre se foram encontrados desafios com quaisquer vias de resgate tentadas durante a intubação traqueal. Quando o operador da via aérea responsável pela extubação não participou da intubação traqueal, essas informações devem ser buscadas [14, 22, 29]. Na ausência de uma justificativa convincente para agir de outra forma, quaisquer vias de resgate que foram desafiadoras durante a intubação traqueal devem, por padrão, ser designadas como `em risco´ para o manejo da via aérea após a extubação [14, 29, 42].

Embora a consideração do nível de habilidade do operador da via aérea que realizou a intubação traqueal inicial seja claramente relevante, recomenda-se cautela ao atribuir desafios encontrados durante a intubação traqueal exclusivamente ao nível de habilidade de outro operador. Desafios anteriores não devem ser desconsiderados a menos que um fator contribuinte óbvio tenha sido resolvido [26, 63].

Os fatores de risco também podem variar substancialmente entre a intubação traqueal e a extubação, mesmo quando esse intervalo é curto. Desafios anteriores podem ser exacerbados, ou novos desafios podem surgir apesar de a intubação traqueal ter transcorrido sem intercorrências. Mudanças no ambiente ou no horário do dia desde a intubação traqueal podem impactar os fatores da equipe e da situação. Os fatores do paciente podem variar por múltiplas razões. Por exemplo, os pacientes podem estar menos cooperativos devido a sedação, estimulação da via aérea, dor ou hipoxemia. Processos que ocorrem subsequentemente à intubação traqueal podem influenciar agudamente os fatores de risco anatômicos (Quadro 1) [1, 15, 23, 30, 31, 34, 43, 64 - 77]. A distorção anatômica progressiva, devido a sangramento ou edema, pode influenciar tanto o risco de que o manejo da via aérea seja necessário quanto o risco de que seja desafiador [15, 78 - 82]. Se as intervenções cirúrgicas resultarem em ser inviável reproduzir as condições da intubação traqueal (por exemplo, fusão cervical) ou impedirem o acesso à via aérea (por exemplo, halo craniano), o operador deve considerar o potencial aumentado de desafios no resgate da via aérea [29, 79, 83 - 85]. Após a extubação, os fatores de risco anatômicos podem progredir; portanto, seu impacto deve ser considerado não apenas no momento da extubação, mas durante todo o intervalo em que o paciente permanecer com risco aumentado de necessitar de manejo subsequente da via aérea [15, 78 - 82].

Deve-se ter cautela ao tirar conclusões sobre a capacidade de obter visão da laringe enquanto um tubo traqueal está in situ [30, 86, 87]. Realizar laringoscopia em um paciente com um tubo traque

A key factor in fl uencing the likelihood of encountering challenges is the urgency with which airway management is required. In addition to severely limiting opportunities to achieve airway success, time-critical airway management may increase team stress, potentially compromising performance [43, 90]. Methods employed successfully during initial tracheal intubation may prove challenging in such circumstances. Anatomical factors contributing to the likelihood of tracheal re-intubation may also increase the likelihood of encountering challenges (Box 1), both by causing airway distortion and because they are more likely to be associated with the need for time-critical interventions [4, 14, 15, 31 - 33, 37 - 39]. Tracheal re-intubation precipitated by decreased physiological reserves can also complicate airway management by compromising safe apnoea time or increasing haemodynamic instability. However, it is more common for physiological factors to result in a gradual deterioration of the patient. This generally provides time to implement a broader range of airway management options, including awake tracheal intubation [1, 6].

Safe apnoea time: If challenges with airway rescue interrupt alveolar ventilation, the likelihood and severity of hypoxaemia are in fl uenced by the safe apnoea time. Safe apnoea time refers to the duration that blood oxygen saturation remains adequate if alveolar ventilation is interrupted. The anticipated safe apnoea time is a subjective judgement made by the airway operator. Safe apnoea time maybereducedin infants and neonates; pregnancy; obesity; pulmonary disease; and hypermetabolic states. A detailed overview of the factors impacting safe apnoea time will be provided in a PUMA guideline addressing risk evaluation. Where it is considered that the safe apnoea time following re-oxygenation of the functional residual capacity may be signi fi cantly diminished, a more conservative approach to extubation is suggested [1].

Um fator-chave para influenciar a probabilidade de encontrar desafios é a urgência com que o manejo da via aérea é necessário. Além de limitar gravemente as oportunidades de obter sucesso no manejo da via aérea, o manejo da via aérea em situações de tempo crítico pode aumentar o estresse da equipe, potencialmente comprometendo o desempenho [43, 90]. Os métodos empregados com sucesso durante a intubação traqueal inicial podem se mostrar desafiadores nessas circunstâncias. Fatores anatômicos que contribuem para a probabilidade de reintubação traqueal também podem aumentar a probabilidade de encontrar desafios (Quadro 1), tanto

Risk of pulmonary aspirationRisco de aspiração pulmonar

Patients considered at increased risk of pulmonary aspiration during tracheal intubation should still be considered as such during extubation, unless there is reason to expect that there has been a signi fi cant improvement in risk pro fi le [1, 20, 42, 44, 91]. Pulmonary aspiration risk may also be acquired after tracheal intubation, due to surgical debris (e.g. blood or pus) from the upper airway entering the stomach or surgical manipulation of the gastrointestinal tract [42, 44]. Nasal instrumentation may cause blood to accumulate in the nasopharynx. Blood clot aspiration may cause complete airway obstruction (`coroner ' s clot´) [92]. Despite waiting for return of consciousness before extubation, residual sedation (potentially made worse by removal of the stimulation provided by the tracheal tube), unrecognised persistent neuromuscular blockade or impaired airway re fl exes (which may persist for hours post-extubation) may predispose to pulmonary aspiration in patients with residual gastric content or signi fi cant re fl ux [14, 56, 57, 93]. A detailed overview of the factors impacting the risk of pulmonary aspiration will be provided in another PUMA guideline addressing risk evaluation.

Pacientes considerados de risco aumentado de aspiração pulmonar durante a intubação traqueal devem continuar sendo considerados como tal durante a extubação, a menos que haja motivo para esperar que tenha ocorrido uma melhora significativa no perfil de risco [1, 20, 42, 44, 91]. O risco de aspiração pulmonar também pode ser adquirido após a intubação traqueal, devido a detritos cirúrgicos (p. ex., sangue ou pus) das vias aéreas superiores que entram no estômago ou à manipulação cirúrgica do trato gastrointestinal [42, 44]. A instrumentação nasal pode fazer com que sangue se acumule na nasofaringe. A aspiração de coágulo sanguíneo pode causar obstrução completa das vias aéreas (“coágulo do legista”) [92]. Apesar de aguardar o retorno da consciência antes da extubação, sedação residual (potencialmente agravada pela remoção do estímulo proporcionado pelo tubo traqueal), bloqueio neuromuscular persistente não reconhecido ou reflexos das vias aéreas comprometidos (que podem persistir por horas após a extubação) podem predispor à aspiração pulmonar em pacientes com conteúdo gástrico residual ou refluxo significativo [14, 56, 57, 93]. Uma visão detalhada dos fatores que impactam o risco de aspiração pulmonar será fornecida em outra diretriz PUMA que aborda a avaliação de risco.

Risk of harm from airway stimulationRisco de lesão por estimulação da via aérea

Extubation can expose patients to similar risks from airway stimulation to those encountered during tracheal intubation [14, 94 - 99]. However, airway stimulation at extubation may have a greater impact due to the offset of sedatives and neuromuscular blocking drugs [100]. Airway trauma or contamination occurring after tracheal intubation (e.g. from surgery) may predispose to coughing and laryngospasm following extubation. Laryngospasm can result in signi fi cant morbidity in both adults and children due to obstruction, negative-pressure pulmonary oedema or pulmonary aspiration (secondary to gastric distention caused by application of positive pressure to treat laryngospasm) [1, 101 - 105]. Young children are particularly prone to apnoea triggered by airway manipulation, including extubation [106]. Airway stimulation may cause bleeding from surgical sites or complications from raised intracranial or intraocular pressure [23, 43]. Many of these issues are exacerbated if airway rescue is required, particularly if this proves challenging. The potential impact of airway stimulation during extubation should be considered so that mitigating actions can be incorporated into the extubation strategy [22, 98].

A extubação pode expor os pacientes a riscos de estimulação da via aérea semelhantes aos encontrados durante a intubação traqueal [14, 94 - 99]. No entanto, a estimulação da via aérea na extubação pode ter maior impacto devido ao término do efeito dos sedativos e dos bloqueadores neuromusculares [100]. Trauma ou contaminação da via aérea que ocorre após a intubação traqueal (p. ex., decorrente de cirurgia) pode predispor a tosse e laringoespasmo após a extubação. O laringoespasmo pode resultar em morbidade significativa em adultos e crianças devido a obstrução, edema pulmonar por pressão negativa ou aspiração pulmonar (secundária à distensão gástrica causada pela aplicação de pressão positiva para tratar o laringoespasmo) [1, 101 - 105]. Crianças pequenas são particularmente propensas a apneia desencadeada pela manipulação da via aérea, incluindo a extubação [106]. A estimulação da via aérea pode causar sangramento de locais cirúrgicos ou complicações por pressão intracraniana ou intraocular elevada [23, 43]. Muitos desses problemas são exacerbados se for necessário resgate da via aérea, principalmente se isso se mostrar desafiador. O impacto potencial da estimulação da via aérea durante a extubação deve ser considerado para que ações de mitigação possam ser incorporadas à estratégia de extubação [22, 98].

Other risksOutros riscos

The presence of additional risks, such as dental injury and hazards to the airway team during extubation, should also beconsidered [1, 107, 108].

A presença de riscos adicionais, como lesão dentária e perigos para a equipe de via aérea durante a extubação, também deve ser considerada [1, 107, 108].

Chapter 4Capítulo 4

Formulating the Extubation StrategyEstratégia de extubação

Formulating a tracheal extubation strategyFormulação da estratégia de extubação traqueal

The general requirement to formulate and clearly communicate an airway strategy addressing any issues

identi fi ed as `at risk´ during evaluation applies equally to tracheal intubation, extubation and conversion between airway lifelines or a front-of-neck airway (hereafter referred to simply as a neck airway) [4, 14, 16, 22, 29]. The required components of an extubation strategy are outlined in Fig. 1. The extubation strategy should address vulnerability to harm from hypoxaemia, pulmonary aspiration, airway stimulation and any other identi fi ed risks. While the general principles for developing an extubation strategy are no different to those for tracheal intubation, speci fi c issues warrant highlighting.

Based on the conclusions of the risk evaluation, the extubation algorithm (Fig. 2) suggests an approach to extubation that provides an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia. An interactive version of this algorithm will be provided in the free PUMA App (https://www. UniversalAirway.org/#app). Instructions for use, additional guidance and clinical scenarios for the extubation algorithm are provided in online Supporting Information Appendix S3 and at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/ algorithm.

The extubation algorithm is intended for routine use before every extubation, even if no potential challenges have been previously identi fi ed. By prompting consideration of key factors impacting whether extubation is `at risk´, the algorithm helps determine whether it is appropriate to proceed with extubation, defer extubation or convert the tracheal tube to a tracheostomy.

When the algorithm suggests proceeding with extubation, the strategy should include an intended approach and an airway rescue plan, even when subsequent airway management challenges are not anticipated [1, 15, 110]. Three approaches to proceeding with extubation are provided by the algorithm: discretionary management; awake extubation; and awake extubation over an airway exchange catheter. These approaches re fl ect responses to progressively increasing levels of identi fi ed risk of hypoxaemia, aimed at maintaining an adequate margin of safety. The airway operator must determine the applicability of the algorithm ' s suggested approach to a given context, and it may sometimes be appropriate to select a more liberal or conservative approach. Furthermore, within each of these broad approaches, considerations other than the risk of hypoxaemia may need to be superimposed to optimise patient safety in a particular context. Discretionary management refers to the situation where the algorithm makes no speci fi c recommendations to provide an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia, and airway operators may choose between alternatives for each element of the extubation strategy, according to identi fi ed risks.

Figure 1 Componentsofatracheal extubation strategy.

Figura 1

The issues relevant to determining each component of an extubation strategy are outlined below. While some of these may be dictated by the approach suggested by the extubation algorithm, numerous additional decisions not determined by the algorithm need to be incorporated into the extubation strategy (e.g. patient position, need for gastric decompression, site and duration of post-extubation care). These additional interventions may not only further contribute to minimising the risk of hypoxaemia, but also the risk of pulmonary aspiration, airway stimulation or other identi fi ed risks that the algorithm does not address.

O requisito geral de formular e comunicar claramente uma estratégia de manejo das vias aéreas que aborde quaisquer problemas identificados como `em risco´ durante a avaliação aplica-se igualmente à intubação traqueal, à extubação e à conversão entre linhas de vida das vias aéreas ou uma via aérea cervical anterior (doravante referida simplesmente como via aérea cervical) [4, 14, 16, 22, 29]. Os componentes necessários de uma estratégia de extubação são descritos na Fig. 1. A estratégia de extubação deve abordar a vulnerabilidade a danos por hipoxemia, aspiração pulmonar, estimulação das vias aéreas e quaisquer outros riscos identificados. Embora os princípios gerais para desenvolver uma estratégia de extubação não sejam diferentes daqueles para intubação traqueal, questões específicas merecem destaque.

Com base nas conclusões da avaliação de risco, o algoritmo de extubação (Fig. 2) sugere uma abordagem de extubação que proporciona uma margem de segurança adequada contra hipoxemia. Uma versão interativa desse algoritmo será fornecida no aplicativo gratuito PUMA (https://www.UniversalAirway.org/#app). Instruções de uso, orientações adicionais e cenários clínicos para o algoritmo de extubação são fornecidos no Apêndice S3 das Informações de Apoio online e em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/algorithm.

O algoritmo de extubação destina-se a uso rotineiro antes de cada extubação, mesmo que nenhum desafio potencial tenha sido previamente identificado. Ao estimular a consideração de fatores-chave que impactam se a extubação é `em risco´, o algoritmo ajuda a determinar se é apropriado prosseguir com a extubação, adiar a extubação ou converter o tubo traqueal em traqueostomia.

Quando o algoritmo sugere prosseguir com a extubação, a estratégia deve incluir uma abordagem pretendida e um plano de resgate das vias aéreas, mesmo quando desafios subsequentes no manejo das vias aéreas não são antecipados [1, 15, 110]. Três abordagens para prosseguir com a extubação são fornecidas pelo algoritmo: manejo discricionário; extubação com o paciente acordado; e extubação com o paciente acordado sobre cateter de troca de via aérea. Essas abordagens refletem respostas a níveis progressivamente crescentes de risco identificado de hipoxemia, com o objetivo de manter uma margem de segurança adequada. O operador das vias aéreas deve determinar a aplicabilidade da abordagem sugerida pelo algoritmo a um determinado contexto, e às vezes pode ser apropriado selecionar uma abordagem mais liberal ou mais conservadora. Além disso, dentro de cada uma dessas abordagens amplas, considerações que não o risco de hipoxemia podem precisar ser sobrepostas para otimizar a segurança do paciente em um contexto específico. O manejo discricionário refere-se à situação em que o algoritmo não faz recomendações específicas para fornecer uma margem de segurança adequada contra hipoxemia, e os operadores das vias aéreas podem escolher entre alternativas para cada elemento da estratégia de extubação, de acordo com os riscos identificados.

Figura 1 Componentes de uma estratégia de extubação traqueal.

Figura 1

As questões relevantes para determinar cada componente de uma estratégia de extubação são descritas abaixo. Embora algumas destas possam ser ditadas pela abordagem sugerida pelo algoritmo de extubação, inúmeras decisões adicionais não determinadas pelo algoritmo precisam ser incorporadas à estratégia de extubação (por exemplo, posição do paciente, necessidade de descompressão gástrica, local e duração dos cuidados pós-extubação). Essas intervenções adicionais podem não apenas contribuir ainda mais para minimizar o risco de hipoxemia, mas também o risco de aspiração pulmonar, estimulação das vias aéreas ou outros riscos identificados que o algoritmo não aborda.

Team, timing and environment for tracheal extubationEquipe, momento e ambiente para a extubação traqueal

The unconditionally elective nature of planned extubation provides a signi fi cant opportunity to optimise the team, timing and environment. While extubation is often associated with the removal of monitoring, patient transfers between locations and multiple distractions, the same standards of monitoring, equipment and assistance apply as during tracheal intubation [1, 15, 42]. Following extubation, continuous maintenance of this level of monitoring and provision of supplementary oxygen (including during transfer between locations) is encouraged until the patient can be relied upon to maintain airway patency and ventilation independently [1, 4, 14, 15, 22, 29, 111]. When sugammadex-induced anaphylaxis occurs, this is frequently during the period surrounding extubation [112, 113], underscoring the need for continued vigilance and careful monitoring following extubation to ensure timely recognition.

Unplanned extubation, due to accidental or time-critical (e.g. tracheal tube obstruction) removal of the tracheal tube, deprives the team of the opportunity to optimise the team, timing and environment for extubation. Management of such an emergency should follow the general principles of airway rescue as per any interruption to airway patency or ventilation. Patients identi fi ed as being at high risk of accidental extubation, or in need of specialised staff or equipment for airway rescue, should have appropriate precautions in place [62]. This may include meticulous securing of the tracheal tube; bedside signage of anticipated airway challenges; documentation of the tracheal re-intubation strategy; immediate availability of any equipment required for airway rescue; and contact details for timely access to any specialised staff [62].

Figure 2 Tracheal extubation algorithm. This implementation tool has been designed to facilitate real-time decision making during clinical practice. Optimal use during clinical practice requires prior familiarity with the algorithm, guideline text and instructions for use [109]. Instructions for use are provided at www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/algorithm. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating this at A3 size is recommended.

Figura 2

Airway management team: Extubation should only be undertaken in the presence of an airway team capable of undertaking tracheal re-intubation and providing other forms of airway rescue if required [1, 15]. The number, experience and expertise of immediately available staff should be considered [23, 31, 58, 114], noting that environment and time of day may in fl uence these. For complex cases, there may be a need to involve practitioners with speci fi c expertise [1]. While supraglottic airway removal following elective surgery is often undertaken by appropriately skilled recovery staff, an airway operator should remain immediately available in case complications arise [1, 15, 115].

Timing of tracheal extubation: Deferring extubation is recommended when it will improve patient, team or situation factors that signi fi cantly decrease risk [15, 23]. This may provide time for resolution of pathology, institution of therapies (e.g. antibiotics, steroids, diuresis) or improving the environment and resources available for extubation, observation or tracheal re-intubation. Patients remain at increased risk of requiring airway rescue for a variable duration following extubation, which should be timed to avoid the potential negative impact of shift changes on the number or expertise of available staff during this period [14, 114, 116, 117].

Conversely, even when signi fi cant challenges with extubation are anticipated, deferral is not recommended unless it is expected to signi fi cantly decrease the risk of encountering, identifying or managing these [14, 29, 31, 42, 114, 118 - 120]. If deferring extubation does not decrease | risk signi fi cantly, it only serves to transfer identi fi ed challenges to another airway practitioner, who may be less familiar with or equipped to deal with the issues involved.

Although extubation should generally be timed to minimise the risk that tracheal re-intubation will be required, in a critical care context a patient struggling to wean from ventilatory support may have a `trial of extubation´ to avoid progression to tracheostomy, despite tracheal re-intubation being probable. Such an approach is only appropriate in this context and should not be adopted if tracheal re-intubation is expected to be challenging [14, 29, 35, 121 - 123].

Whenever extubation is deferred, the above process of satisfying preconditions and re-evaluating risks using the algorithm should be repeated before reconsidering extubation [4, 14, 15, 31 - 33, 37 - 39].

Environment for tracheal extubation: Extubation should be performed in an environment suitable for implementing the extubation strategy that enables subsequent safe access to a location suf fi ciently resourced to provide appropriate observation [1, 15, 120]. This requires consideration of physical space requirements as well as availability of equipment, monitoring and access to staff. In patients at high cumulative risk, intra- or inter-hospital transfer may be required to ensure immediate access to appropriately skilled staff, specialised equipment or post-extubation observation. When imminent patient transfer is required for other reasons, deferring extubation is suggested if there are concerns about maintaining airway patency during transport after extubation [1, 14, 44, 58, 88].

A natureza totalmente eletiva da extubação planejada oferece uma oportunidade significativa para otimizar a equipe, o momento e o ambiente. Embora a extubação seja frequentemente associada à remoção da monitorização, à transferência de pacientes entre locais e a múltiplas distrações, aplicam-se os mesmos padrões de monitorização, equipamentos e assistência que durante a intubação traqueal [1, 15, 42]. Após a extubação, recomenda-se a manutenção contínua desse nível de monitorização e a oferta de oxigênio suplementar (inclusive durante a transferência entre locais) até que se possa confiar que o paciente mantenha a permeabilidade da via aérea e a ventilação de forma independente [1, 4, 14, 15, 22, 29, 111]. Quando ocorre anafilaxia induzida por sugammadex, isso frequentemente acontece no período em torno da extubação [112, 113], ressaltando a necessidade de vigilância contínua e monitorização cuidadosa após a extubação para garantir o reconhecimento oportuno.

A extubação não planejada, devido à remoção acidental ou urgente (por exemplo, obstrução do tubo traqueal) do tubo traqueal, priva a equipe da oportunidade de otimizar a equipe, o momento e o ambiente para a extubação. O manejo dessa emergência deve seguir os princípios gerais de resgate da via aérea, como em qualquer interrupção da permeabilidade da via aérea ou da ventilação. Pacientes identificados como de alto risco de extubação acidental, ou que necessitem de equipe ou equipamentos especializados para resgate da via aérea, devem ter precauções apropriadas instituídas [62]. Isso pode incluir fixação meticulosa do tubo traqueal; sinalização à beira do leito dos desafios previstos da via aérea; documentação da estratégia de reintubação traqueal; disponibilidade imediata de qualquer equipamento necessário para o resgate da via aérea; e detalhes de contato para acesso oportuno a qualquer equipe especializada [62].

Figura 2 Algoritmo de extubação traqueal. Esta ferramenta de implementação foi projetada para facilitar a tomada de decisão em tempo real durante a prática clínica. O uso ideal durante a prática clínica requer familiaridade prévia com o algoritmo, o texto da diretriz e as instruções de uso [109]. As instruções de uso estão disponíveis em www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/algorithm. Uma versão em alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se imprimir e plastificar em tamanho A3.

Figura 2

Equipe de manejo da via aérea: A extubação só deve ser realizada na presença de uma equipe de via aérea capaz de realizar reintubação traqueal e fornecer outras formas de resgate da via aérea, se necessário [1, 15]. O número, a experiência e a especialização da equipe imediatamente disponível devem ser considerados [23, 31, 58, 114], observando que o ambiente e o horário do dia podem influenciar esses fatores. Em casos complexos, pode haver necessidade de envolver profissionais com experiência específica [1]. Embora a remoção de dispositivo supraglótico após cirurgia eletiva seja frequentemente realizada por equipe de recuperação devidamente capacitada, um operador de via aérea deve permanecer imediatamente disponível caso surjam complicações [1, 15, 115].

Momento da extubação traqueal: Recomenda-se adiar a extubação quando isso melhorar fatores do paciente, da equipe ou da situação que reduzam significativamente o risco [15, 23]. Isso pode proporcionar tempo para resolução da patologia, instituição de terapias (por exemplo, antibióticos, corticosteroides, diurese) ou melhora do ambiente e dos recursos disponíveis para extubação, observação ou reintubação traqueal. Os pacientes permanecem com risco aumentado de necessitar de resgate da via aérea por um período variável após a extubação, que deve ser programada para evitar o possível impacto negativo das trocas de turno sobre o número ou a especialização da equipe disponível durante esse período [14, 114, 116, 117].

Por outro lado, mesmo quando se antecipam desafios significativos com a extubação, o adiamento não é recomendado, a menos que se espere que ele reduza significativamente o risco de encontrar, identificar ou manejar esses desafios [14, 29, 31, 42, 114, 118 - 120]. Se o adiamento da extubação não reduzir significativamente o risco, ele apenas transfere os desafios identificados para outro profissional de via aérea, que pode estar menos familiarizado ou menos preparado para lidar com as questões envolvidas.

Chapter 5Capítulo 5

General Considerations & PlansConsiderações gerais e planos

General considerationsConsiderações gerais

The following considerations may impact multiple aspects of extubation-related risk, necessitating reconciliation of con fl icting requirements.

Clearing airway contaminants: Prior to extubation, the oropharynx should be suctioned carefully to remove debris or secretions that might cause airway stimulation, obstruction, pulmonary aspiration or impede subsequent tracheal re-intubation [1, 15]. Suction should remain immediately available following extubation until the patient has regained their baseline level of airway protective re fl exes [1, 115]. In addition to reversing atelectasis [124, 125], sustained in fl ation of the lungs to near vital capacity immediately before de fl ating the tracheal tube cuff, and maintaining positive pressure as the tracheal tube is removed, decreases laryngeal adductor excitability and generates a passive exhalation that helps clear any airway soiling above the cuff, both of which may reduce the risk of subsequent laryngospasm [14, 126]. The sustained in fl ation also provides an increased oxygen reservoir if airway obstruction occurs following extubation [68]. Conversely, while using a suction catheter to remove secretions from the airway lumen before removing the tracheal tube (followed by ventilation with 100% oxygen) may be appropriate, applying suction to the lumen of the tracheal tube as it is removed is discouraged, as this promotes atelectasis and decreases the oxygen reservoir [127, 128].

Examination of the pharynx using a laryngoscope (before extubation or after removal of a supraglottic airway), including behind the soft palate for a `coroner ' s clot´, should be undertaken when there is potential for blood to have accumulated while any airway device was in place [1]. Laryngoscopic examination of the pharynx to con fi rm removal of pharyngeal packs should also be performed if these have been placed [1, 40, 129]. As the practitioner responsible for airway management during emergence, the airway operator retains responsibility for this examination, even if a pharyngeal pack has been placed by a surgeon [40]. To further reduce the risk of retention, pharyngeal packs should only be placed when considered essential; there should be verbal agreement between the airway operator and surgeon that a pharyngeal pack is to be used; and the process for their insertion and removal should be standardised [40, 129, 130]. Recommended components of such a process are that their insertion and removal should be clearly declared [129, 131], they should be added to the surgical count at the time of their placement [40, 129] and that the fi nal count should be con fi rmed before extubation [40]. Use of visual cues to the presence of a pharyngeal pack (such leaving part of pack protruding from the mouth and placing labels on the patient and/or airway device) and securing the pharyngeal pack to the airway device are also recommended [132]. Clear handover regarding the presence of a pharyngeal pack in the airway is essential if a change of staff occurs during a procedure [129 - 131].

Gastric decompression: To minimise respiratory compromisefromdiaphragmatic splinting and the potential for regurgitation, decompression of the stomach via a gastric tube before extubation should be considered if signi fi cant gastric insuf fl ation may have occurred (e.g. high pressure ventilation via a facemask or supraglottic airway or ventilation following oesophageal intubation) or where there is a risk of signi fi cant residual gastric content [14, 43]. Avoidance of diaphragmatic splinting is especially important in infants and neonates [4, 14, 133].

Placing a bite block: Sustained biting on a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway during emergence from anaesthesia can obstruct the airway, interrupting alveolar ventilation and potentially causing negative-pressure pulmonary oedema resulting in severe hypoxaemia [1, 134, 135]. Obstruction of reinforced tracheal tubes may persist even after transient compression. Use of a bite block to reduce this risk should be considered, particularly when removing a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway awake [1, 14, 15]. Bite blocks may be integrated into the airway device or improvised using commonly available items. Many supraglottic airways provide integrated bite-blocking mechanisms. The potential for improvised bite blocks (e.g. oropharyngeal airways, rolled gauze) to cause dental injury or airway obstruction should be considered and minimised [14, 44, 136, 137].

Positioning: Specifying the patient position during extubation should always form part of the strategy [14, 126]. Patient positioning has implications for airway patency; respiration; pulmonary aspiration; and ease of subsequent airway management. Surgical considerations may also in fl uence positioning. Choice of position for extubation should balance optimal positioning for subsequent airway management with other considerations to maximise patient safety [4, 14, 58, 126, 138].

Extubating supine or ≤ 30 ° `head up´ (reverse Trendelenburg or Fowler ' s inclination) typically provides optimal access for subsequent airway interventions, including tracheal re-intubation if required. If extubation is not being undertaken with the patient in an optimal position for subsequent airway management (e.g. lateral, > 30 ° head up), adequate staff for urgent repositioning should be readily available [1, 4, 10, 14, 15].

Extubating in a 30 ° head-up position, rather than supine, has bene fi ts including maintaining airway patency; increasing the functional residual capacity; improving diaphragmatic excursion; and decreasing alveolar collapse [6, 110]. Patients who are obese may bene fi t from extubation with > 30 ° Fowler ' s inclination [110, 139 - 142].

In patients designated `at risk´ of pulmonary aspiration, undertaking extubation in the supine position should be avoided [68, 143]. Placing these patients in the lateral position for extubation may provide some protection to the non-dependent lung if pulmonary aspiration occurs [68]. The lateral position may also help avoid airway obstruction following extubation or removal of a supraglottic airway. Extubation in a head-up position might decrease the risk of passive regurgitation but increase the risk of aspirating regurgitated or vomited material. Trendelenburg inclination has the opposite effect [143 - 145].

Recovery of neuromuscular function: The above, potentially stimulating interventions (suction; gastric decompression; bite block; positioning) should ideally be performed while the patient remains deeply sedated and with full neuromuscular blockade (however, once the patient is fully awake, suctioning may be repeated immediately before extubation if required) [14, 126]. Any residual neuromuscular blockade should then be antagonised while the patient remains sedated [15, 93, 146 - 149]. When neuromuscular blocking drugs are being used, quantitative neuromuscular monitoring is recommended to ensure return of baseline neuromuscular function before extubation [15, 93, 146, 148, 150, 151]. Incomplete antagonism of neuromuscular blockade increases the risk of hypoxaemia, pulmonary aspiration and awareness following extubation.

The use of sugammadex to antagonise neuromuscular blocking drugs is increasing globally [152 - 154]. While the precise incidence of sugammadex-induced anaphylaxis is currently unclear [112, 155 - 157], it is higher than that associated with neostigmine [158, 159]. However, this risk must be balanced against the ability of sugammadex to provide fast and reliable recovery of neuromuscular function when aminosteroid neuromuscular blocking drugs have been used, while allowing profound muscle relaxation to be maintained until immediately before extubation [157]. This has bene fi ts in terms of providing optimal surgical and ventilatory conditions until the point of extubation while avoiding delays to recovery of neuromuscular function and reducing the signi fi cant psychological and physiological risks associated with residual neuromuscular blockade following extubation [154, 160]. Recent data indicate sugammadex may also decrease the incidence of extubation failure and unplanned ICU admission, even in patients without chronic pulmonary disease undergoing only minor procedures [161]. When quantitative neuromuscular monitoring shows suf fi cient recovery from an aminosteroid neuromuscular blocking drug to permit effective antagonism with neostigmine, practitioners must decide which antagonist offers the best risk:bene fi t pro fi le to an individual patient.

As seguintes considerações podem impactar múltiplos aspectos do risco relacionado à extubação, exigindo a reconciliação de requisitos conflitantes.

Limpeza de contaminantes das vias aéreas: Antes da extubação, a orofaringe deve ser aspirada cuidadosamente para remover detritos ou secreções que possam causar estimulação das vias aéreas, obstrução, aspiração pulmonar ou impedir a reintubação traqueal subsequente [1, 15]. O aspirador deve permanecer imediatamente disponível após a extubação até que o paciente tenha recuperado seu nível basal de reflexos de proteção das vias aéreas [1, 115]. Além de reverter atelectasias [124, 125], a insuflação sustentada dos pulmões até próximo da capacidade vital imediatamente antes de desinsuflar o balonete do tubo traqueal, e a manutenção de pressão positiva enquanto o tubo traqueal é removido, diminuem a excitabilidade dos adutores laríngeos e geram uma expiração passiva que ajuda a limpar qualquer sujidade nas vias aéreas acima do balonete, ambos podendo reduzir o risco de laringoespasmo subsequente [14, 126]. A insuflação sustentada também proporciona um reservatório aumentado de oxigênio se ocorrer obstrução das vias aéreas após a extubação [68]. Por outro lado, embora o uso de um cateter de aspiração para remover secreções do lúmen das vias aéreas antes de remover o tubo traqueal (seguido de ventilação com oxigênio a 100%) possa ser apropriado, a aplicação de sucção ao lúmen do tubo traqueal durante sua remoção é desencorajada, pois isso promove atelectasia e diminui o reservatório de oxigênio [127, 128].

O exame da faringe com um laringoscópio (antes da extubação ou após a remoção de uma via aérea supraglótica), incluindo atrás do palato mole para um “coágulo do coroner”, deve ser realizado quando houver potencial de acúmulo de sangue enquanto qualquer dispositivo de via aérea esteve em posição [1]. O exame laringoscópico da faringe para confirmar a remoção de tampões faríngeos também deve ser realizado se estes tiverem sido inseridos [1, 40, 129]. Como o profissional responsável pelo manejo das vias aéreas durante o despertar, o operador das vias aéreas mantém a responsabilidade por esse exame, mesmo que um tampão faríngeo tenha sido colocado por um cirurgião [40]. Para reduzir ainda mais o risco de retenção, tampões faríngeos só devem ser inseridos quando considerados essenciais; deve haver concordância verbal entre o operador das vias aéreas e o cirurgião de que um tampão faríngeo será utilizado; e o processo para sua inserção e remoção deve ser padronizado [40, 129, 130]. Componentes recomendados desse processo são que sua inserção e remoção devem ser claramente declaradas [129, 131], que devem ser adicionados à contagem cirúrgica no momento de sua colocação [40, 129] e que a contagem final deve ser confirmada antes da extubação [40]. O uso de pistas visuais para a presença de um tampão faríngeo (como deixar parte do tampão protruindo da boca e colocar etiquetas no paciente e/ou dispositivo de via aérea) e a fixação do tampão faríngeo ao dispositivo de via aérea também são recomendados [132]. A transferência clara de informações sobre a presença de um tampão faríngeo na via aérea é essencial se ocorrer mudança de equipe durante um procedimento [129 - 131].

Descompressão gástrica: Para minimizar o comprometimento respiratório por imobilização diafragmática e o potencial de regurgitação, a descompressão do estômago por meio de uma sonda gástrica antes da extubação deve ser considerada se tiver ocorrido insuflação gástrica significativa (por exemplo, ventilação com alta pressão via máscara facial ou via aérea supraglótica, ou ventilação após intubação esofágica) ou quando houver risco de conteúdo gástrico residual significativo [14, 43].

A prevenção da imobilização diafragmática é especialmente importante em lactentes e neonatos [4, 14, 133].

Colocação de um bloqueador de mordida: A mordida sustentada em um tubo traqueal ou via aérea supraglótica durante o despertar da anestesia pode obstruir as vias aéreas, interrompendo a ventilação alveolar e potencialmente causando edema pulmonar por pressão negativa, resultando em hipoxemia grave [1, 134, 135]. A obstrução de tubos traqueais reforçados pode persistir mesmo após compressão transitória. O uso de um bloqueador de mordida para reduzir esse risco deve ser considerado, particularmente ao remover um tubo traqueal ou via aérea supraglótica com o paciente acordado [1, 14, 15]. Bloqueadores de mordida podem ser integrados ao dispositivo de via aérea ou improvisados com itens comumente disponíveis. Muitas vias aéreas supraglóticas fornecem mecanismos integrados de bloqueio de mordida. O potencial de bloqueadores de mordida improvisados (por exemplo, vias aéreas orofaríngeas, gaze enrolada) causarem lesão dentária ou obstrução das vias aéreas deve ser considerado e minimizado [14, 44, 136, 137].

Posicionamento: A especificação da posição do paciente durante a extubação deve sempre fazer parte da estratégia [14, 126]. O posicionamento do paciente tem implicações para a permeabilidade das vias aéreas; respiração; aspiração pulmonar; e facilidade do manejo subsequente das vias aéreas. Considerações cirúrgicas também podem influenciar o posicionamento. A escolha da posição para extubação deve equilibrar o posicionamento ideal para o manejo subsequente das vias aéreas com outras considerações para maximizar a segurança do paciente [4, 14, 58, 126, 138].

A extubação em decúbito dorsal ou com cabeceira elevada ≤ 30° (Trendelenburg reverso ou inclinação de Fowler) tipicamente fornece acesso ideal para intervenções subsequentes nas vias aéreas, incluindo reintubação traqueal, se necessária. Se a extubação não estiver sendo realizada com o paciente em uma posição ideal para o manejo subsequente das vias aéreas (por exemplo, lateral, cabeceira elevada > 30°), pessoal adequado para reposicionamento urgente deve estar prontamente disponível [1, 4, 10, 14, 15].

A extubação em posição com cabeceira elevada a 30°, em vez de decúbito dorsal, tem benefícios, incluindo a manutenção da permeabilidade das vias aéreas; aumento da capacidade residual funcional; melhora da excursão diafragmática; e diminuição do colapso alveolar [6, 110]. Pacientes obesos podem se beneficiar da extubação com inclinação de Fowler > 30° [110, 139 - 142].

Em pacientes designados como “de risco” para aspiração pulmonar, a realização da extubação em posição supina deve ser evitada [68, 143]. Posicionar esses pacientes em posição lateral para extubação pode fornecer alguma proteção ao pulmão não dependente se ocorrer aspiração pulmonar [68]. A posição lateral também pode ajudar a evitar obstrução das vias aéreas após a extubação ou remoção de uma via aérea supraglótica. A extubação em posição com cabeceira elevada pode diminuir o risco de regurgitação passiva, mas aumentar o risco de aspiração de material regurgitado ou vomitado. A inclinação de Trendelenburg tem o efeito oposto [143 - 145].

Recuperação da função neuromuscular: As intervenções acima, potencialmente estimulantes (aspiração; descompressão gástrica; bloqueador de mordida; posicionamento), devem idealmente ser realizadas enquanto o paciente permanece profundamente sedado e com bloqueio neuromuscular completo (entretanto, uma vez que o paciente está totalmente acordado, a aspiração pode ser repetida imediatamente antes da extubação, se necessário) [14, 126]. Qualquer bloqueio neuromuscular residual deve então ser antagonizado enquanto o paciente permanece sedado [15, 93, 146 - 149]. Quando fármacos bloqueadores neuromusculares estão sendo utilizados, a monitorização neuromuscular quantitativa é recomendada para garantir o retorno da função neuromuscular basal antes da extubação [15, 93, 146, 148, 150, 151]. O antagonismo incompleto do bloqueio neuromuscular aumenta o risco de hipoxemia, aspiração pulmonar e despertar intraoperatório após a extubação.

O uso de sugamadex para antagonizar fármacos bloqueadores neuromusculares está aumentando globalmente [152 - 154]. Embora a incidência precisa de anafilaxia induzida por sugamadex seja atualmente incerta [112, 155 - 157], ela é maior do que a associada à neostigmina [158, 159]. No entanto, esse risco deve ser equilibrado com a capacidade do sugamadex de proporcionar recuperação rápida e confiável da função neuromuscular quando fármacos bloqueadores neuromusculares aminoesteroides tiverem sido utilizados, permitindo que o relaxamento muscular profundo seja mantido até imediatamente antes da extubação [157]. Isso tem benefícios em termos de proporcionar condições cirúrgicas e ventilatórias ideais até o momento da extubação, evitando atrasos na recuperação da função neuromuscular e reduzindo os riscos psicológicos e fisiológicos significativos associados ao bloqueio neuromuscular residual após a extubação [154, 160]. Dados recentes indicam que o sugamadex também pode diminuir a incidência de falha de extubação e admissão não planejada em UTI, mesmo em pacientes sem doença pulmonar crônica submetidos apenas a procedimentos menores [161]. Quando a monitorização neuromuscular quantitativa mostra recuperação suficiente de um fármaco bloqueador neuromuscular aminoesteroide para permitir antagonismo eficaz com neostigmina, os profissionais devem decidir qual antagonista oferece o melhor perfil de risco:benefício para um paciente individual.

In patients with Parkinson ' s disease or myasthenia gravis, administration of medications to optimise neurological or neuromuscular function should also be up to date at the time of extubation, with a plan to avoid any subsequent interruption (e.g. due to impaired oral intake) [162 - 165].

Level of consciousness: Extubation (or supraglottic airway removal) should be undertaken either with the patient deeply unconscious (deep extubation) or fully awake (awake extubation), avoiding intermediate planes of consciousness due to the increased risk of complications [58, 88, 126, 143, 166].

Typically, obeying commands (or showing an equivalent level of consciousness in those with communication or cognitive dif fi culties) indicates that the patient is `awake´ [44, 126]. Eye opening in response to verbal requests to do so may represent a non-speci fi c reaction to stimulation rather than ability to follow instructions. Demonstrating compliance with requests to perform more speci fi c tasks (e.g. `squeeze my hand´) avoids this ambiguity. Purposeful movements (e.g. reaching for the tracheal tube) do not reliably indicate that the patient is awake, and extubation at this threshold may predispose to serious complications.

The depth of sedation required for deep extubation is equivalent to that required for airway instrumentation when initiating airway management. Removal of a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway under deep sedation poses an increased risk of airway obstruction or apnoea. In the absence of speci fi c indications to do otherwise, awake extubation is usually the safest option for reducing risk of hypoxaemia and pulmonary aspiration. Deep extubation should be considered an advanced technique, only performed in the presence of a skilled operator, experienced with the technique, who can undertake airway rescue if alveolar ventilation is interrupted [14, 23, 43, 167, 168]. Deep extubation should only be performed if pulmonary aspiration risk is minimal, safe apnoea time is adequate and when there is an expectation that both tracheal re-intubation and ventilation with at least one of the other lifelines (facemask or supraglottic airway) will be rapid andreliable [4, 14, 23, 44, 58, 126, 167, 168].

Following antagonism of neuromuscular blockade, spontaneous ventilation on 100% oxygen should be established before removing the tracheal tube [14, 44]. When deep extubation is undertaken, although sedative medications may be transiently weaned to facilitate restoration of spontaneous ventilation, deep sedation should be restored before removing the tracheal tube [44, 169]. Furthermore, if adult patients react to de fl ation of the tracheal tube cuff (coughing, straining, altered breathing pattern) during attempted deep extubation, removal of the tracheal tube should be deferred while depth of sedation is increased [14, 44]. In children, a transient pause in regular spontaneous ventilation may occur with tracheal cuff de fl ation despite adequate depth of sedation. Extubation may proceed provided there is no associated abdominal wall rigidity and spontaneous ventilation promptly resumes [169].

Whether undertaking extubation deep or awake, once sedative medications have been ceased, the patient should be allowed to wake on their own gradually, with minimal physical or auditory stimulation during the emergence phase [14, 44, 143, 166]. This involves refraining from vigorous physical manipulation, excessive verbal prompting and airway stimulation during intermediate planes of consciousness. Slow, gentle, passive range-of-motion manoeuvres across large joints, to provide proprioceptive input, may accelerate the rate of emergence but using abrupt or painful stimuli to provoke arousal can precipitate coughing; straining; jaw clenching; regurgitation; laryngospasm (following deep extubation); hypertension; and tachycardia. Positive-pressure ventilation asynchronous with spontaneous ventilatory efforts may have a similar impact. Patients who have undergone deep extubation should be observed particularly closely until they are obeying commands [1, 10, 126, 167].

Em pacientes com doença de Parkinson ou miastenia grave, a administração de medicamentos para otimizar a função neurológica ou neuromuscular também deve estar atualizada no momento da extubação, com um plano para evitar qualquer interrupção subsequente (p. ex., devido a comprometimento da ingestão oral) [162–165].

Nível de consciência: A extubação (ou remoção da via aérea supraglótica) deve ser realizada com o paciente profundamente inconsciente (extubação profunda) ou totalmente desperto (extubação acordada), evitando planos intermediários de consciência devido ao risco aumentado de complicações [58, 88, 126, 143, 166].

Normalmente, obedecer a comandos (ou apresentar nível equivalente de consciência naqueles com dificuldades de comunicação ou cognitivas) indica que o paciente está `desperto´ [44, 126]. A abertura dos olhos em resposta a solicitações verbais para fazê-lo pode representar reação inespecífica ao estímulo, e não capacidade de seguir instruções. Demonstrar cumprimento de solicitações para executar tarefas mais específicas (p. ex., `aperte minha mão´) evita essa ambiguidade. Movimentos intencionais (p. ex., tentar alcançar o tubo traqueal) não indicam de modo confiável que o paciente esteja desperto, e a extubação nesse limiar pode predispor a complicações graves.

A profundidade de sedação necessária para a extubação profunda é equivalente à necessária para a instrumentação da via aérea ao iniciar o manejo da via aérea. A remoção de tubo traqueal ou via aérea supraglótica sob sedação profunda representa risco aumentado de obstrução de via aérea ou apneia. Na ausência de indicações específicas para agir de outra forma, a extubação com o paciente acordado costuma ser a opção mais segura para reduzir o risco de hipoxemia e aspiração pulmonar. A extubação profunda deve ser considerada técnica avançada, realizada apenas na presença de operador hábil, experiente na técnica, capaz de realizar resgate da via aérea se a ventilação alveolar for interrompida [14, 23, 43, 167, 168]. A extubação profunda só deve ser realizada se o risco de aspiração pulmonar for mínimo, o tempo de apneia segura for adequado e quando houver expectativa de que tanto a reintubação traqueal quanto a ventilação com pelo menos uma das outras linhas de vida (máscara facial ou via aérea supraglótica) sejam rápidas e confiáveis [4, 14, 23, 44, 58, 126, 167, 168].

Após a antagonização do bloqueio neuromuscular, a ventilação espontânea com oxigênio a 100% deve ser estabelecida antes da remoção do tubo traqueal [14, 44]. Quando a extubação profunda é realizada, embora os medicamentos sedativos possam ser temporariamente reduzidos para facilitar a restauração da ventilação espontânea, a sedação profunda deve ser restabelecida antes da remoção do tubo traqueal [44, 169]. Além disso, se pacientes adultos reagirem ao esvaziamento do balonete do tubo traqueal (tosse, esforço, padrão respiratório alterado) durante a tentativa de extubação profunda, a remoção do tubo traqueal deve ser adiada enquanto a profundidade da sedação é aumentada [14, 44]. Em crianças, pode ocorrer pausa transitória na ventilação espontânea regular com o esvaziamento do balonete traqueal, apesar da profundidade adequada da sedação. A extubação pode prosseguir desde que não haja rigidez da parede abdominal associada e a ventilação espontânea seja prontamente retomada [169].

Ao realizar extubação profunda ou com o paciente acordado, uma vez que os medicamentos sedativos tenham sido suspensos, deve-se permitir que o paciente desperte gradualmente por conta própria, com estímulo físico ou auditivo mínimo durante a fase de emergência [14, 44, 143, 166]. Isso envolve abster-se de manipulação física vigorosa, estímulo verbal excessivo e estimulação da via aérea durante planos intermediários de consciência. Manobras lentas, suaves e passivas de amplitude de movimento em grandes articulações, para fornecer informação proprioceptiva, podem acelerar a velocidade de emergência, mas o uso de estímulos abruptos ou dolorosos para provocar a vigília pode precipitar tosse; esforço; apertamento da mandíbula; regurgitação; laringoespasmo (após extubação profunda); hipertensão; e taquicardia. A ventilação com pressão positiva assíncrona com os esforços ventilatórios espontâneos pode ter impacto semelhante. Pacientes submetidos à extubação profunda devem ser observados de modo particularmente atento até que estejam obedecendo a comandos [1, 10, 126, 167].

Plan for avoiding harm from hypoxaemiaPlano para evitar lesão por hipóxia

Avoiding harm from hypoxaemia following extubation involves extending the safe apnoea time in case ventilation is interrupted, avoiding the need for tracheal re-intubation and facilitating successful tracheal re-intubation when required, all of which are supported by vigilant post-extubation care.

Extending the safe apnoea time: Re-oxygenation of the functional residual capacity to an end-tidal oxygen concentration ≥ 85% by ventilating with 100% oxygen is recommended for all patients before extubation or conversion of airway management [1, 15]. This extends the safe apnoea time by maximising the amount of oxygen in the functional residual capacity. Continuing supplementary oxygen following extubation, while the patient remains at increased risk of requiring airway support, including during intra-hospital transport, is encouraged even if oxygen saturation is normal [1, 15, 126].

Avoiding the need for tracheal re-intubation: Immediately following extubation, airway patency and ventilation should be evaluated and, if required, support provided [14]. The importance of ensuring return of baseline neuromuscular function and the impact of timing, level of consciousness, position, gastric decompression and clearing airway soiling on avoiding airway obstruction or apnoea have been discussed above. Pre-emptive insertion of a nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal airway may be useful to avoid obstruction following removal of a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway in vulnerable patients [4, 14, 43].

When discretionary management is suggested by the extubation algorithm (Fig. 2), deep exchange of a tracheal tube for a supraglottic airway may be used to minimise the risk of upper airway obstruction post-extubation while avoiding the airway stimulation associated with awake extubation. Application of high- fl ow nasal oxygen, continuous positive airway pressure or noninvasive ventilation following extubation may also reduce the risk of desaturation and potentially the need for tracheal re-intubation in selected patients [15, 23, 34, 110, 170 - 173]. However, in a recent study, routine prophylactic use of highfl ow nasal oxygen following cardiac surgery was not found to impact the incidence of respiratory complications in susceptible patients [174].

When airway rescue is at signi fi cantly increased risk of being both required and challenging, and deferring extubation will not reduce risk, conversion to a tracheostomy may be indicated [23, 30, 43, 175, 176].

Facilitating successful tracheal re-intubation: The extubation strategy should include a plan for post-extubation observation; a contingency plan for controlled tracheal re-intubation should this prove necessary; and an approach to airway rescue in case ventilation is interrupted [1, 30, 43]. As part of the approach to airway rescue, plans to achieve a best effort at each of the lifelines and for priming for neck rescue should be communicated to the team [1, 30, 177, 178]. The equipment, monitoring and expertise to optimise success at tracheal intubation, facemask ventilation, supraglottic airway placement and neck rescue should be immediately available at extubation or supraglottic airway removal [1, 4, 14]. Any interventions required initially to optimise the likelihood of success at the three lifelines should be immediately reproducible at extubation whenever feasible [4, 14]. Where it is not possible to reproduce some elements (e.g. snif fi ng position following cervical spine fusion) or where the risk of airway management challenges has otherwise increased since tracheal intubation (e.g. distorted airway anatomy following surgery), the extubation strategy should address this [4, 14, 22, 29, 111]. Use of an airway exchange catheter to facilitate tracheal re-intubation is discussed below.

If care of a high-risk patient is transferred between practitioners following extubation (whether from medical to nursing staff or between medical or nursing staff), verbal handover and written documentation should be provided that outline the airway concerns, warning signs, triggers for review, as well as the proposed strategy for tracheal reintubation, including any special equipment needed and contact details for the responsible airway operator [1, 14, 15, 31, 43]. When oversight or implementation of the tracheal re-intubation strategy requires involvement of practitioners other than those initially involved in managing the patient, an operator to operator handover is recommended.

Post-extubation care: The extubation strategy should address the need for the patient to remain in a location with staff, equipment and monitoring to recognise the need for tracheal re-intubation promptly and execute the tracheal re-intubation plan safely [1, 14, 15]. The timeframe during which the patient remains at increased risk of requiring tracheal re-intubation will vary by context and must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Patients should generally remain nil by mouth until the `at risk´ period has ended [179].

Vigilant observation and early noti fi cation of airway deterioration are essential aspects of post-extubation care that promote both avoidance of the need for tracheal re-intubation and facilitation of tracheal re-intubation when it is necessary. Patients should be observed for oxygen desaturation; increasing oxygen requirement; altered respiratory effort; decreasing level of consciousness; and onset of agitation (as a marker of hypoxaemia) [1, 15, 31]. Surgical sites near the airway should be observed for swelling; bleeding; fl ap-perfusion; and drain losses [64, 180]. Additional signs of progressive airway obstruction include voice change; drooling; stridor; paradoxical chest movement; tracheal retraction; intercostal recession; and ultimately a silent airway [1, 4, 14, 78].

Evitar danos por hipoxemia após a extubação envolve prolongar o tempo de apneia segura caso a ventilação seja interrompida, evitar a necessidade de reintubação traqueal e facilitar a reintubação traqueal bem-sucedida quando necessária, tudo isso apoiado em cuidados vigilantes pós-extubação.

Prolongar o tempo de apneia segura: A reoxigenação da capacidade residual funcional até uma concentração de oxigênio ao final da expiração ≥ 85% por meio de ventilação com oxigênio a 100% é recomendada para todos os pacientes antes da extubação ou conversão do manejo da via aérea [1, 15]. Isso prolonga o tempo de apneia segura ao maximizar a quantidade de oxigênio na capacidade residual funcional. A continuação de oxigênio suplementar após a extubação, enquanto o paciente permanece em risco aumentado de necessitar de suporte de via aérea, inclusive durante o transporte intra-hospitalar, é encorajada mesmo que a saturação de oxigênio esteja normal [1, 15, 126].

Evitar a necessidade de reintubação traqueal: Imediatamente após a extubação, a permeabilidade da via aérea e a ventilação devem ser avaliadas e, se necessário, deve-se fornecer suporte [14]. A importância de garantir o retorno da função neuromuscular basal e o impacto do momento, nível de consciência, posição, descompressão gástrica e limpeza de sujidade na via aérea na prevenção de obstrução ou apneia foram discutidos acima. A inserção preventiva de uma via aérea nasofaríngea ou orofaríngea pode ser útil para evitar obstrução após a remoção de um tubo traqueal ou de uma via aérea supraglótica em pacientes vulneráveis [4, 14, 43].

Quando o algoritmo de extubação (Fig. 2) sugere manejo discricionário, a troca profunda de um tubo traqueal por uma via aérea supraglótica pode ser usada para minimizar o risco de obstrução das vias aéreas superiores pós-extubação, evitando a estimulação da via aérea associada à extubação acordada. A aplicação de oxigênio nasal de alto fluxo, pressão positiva contínua nas vias aéreas ou ventilação não invasiva após a extubação também pode reduzir o risco de dessaturação e, potencialmente, a necessidade de reintubação traqueal em pacientes selecionados [15, 23, 34, 110, 170-173]. No entanto, em um estudo recente, o uso profilático rotineiro de oxigênio nasal de alto fluxo após cirurgia cardíaca não demonstrou impacto na incidência de complicações respiratórias em pacientes suscetíveis [174].

Quando o resgate da via aérea apresenta risco significativamente aumentado de ser necessário e desafiador, e o adiamento da extubação não reduzir o risco, a conversão para traqueostomia pode ser indicada [23, 30, 43, 175, 176].

Facilitar a reintubação traqueal bem-sucedida: A estratégia de extubação deve incluir um plano para observação pós-extubação; um plano de contingência para reintubação traqueal controlada caso isso se mostre necessário; e uma abordagem para resgate da via aérea caso a ventilação seja interrompida [1, 30, 43]. Como parte da abordagem ao resgate da via aérea, os planos para obter o melhor esforço em cada uma das linhas de vida e para o preparo do resgate cervical devem ser comunicados à equipe [1, 30, 177, 178]. O equipamento, a monitorização e a experiência para otimizar o sucesso na intubação traqueal, ventilação com máscara facial, inserção de via aérea supraglótica e resgate cervical devem estar imediatamente disponíveis na extubação ou na remoção da via aérea supraglótica [1, 4, 14]. Quaisquer intervenções inicialmente necessárias para otimizar a probabilidade de sucesso nas três linhas de vida devem ser imediatamente reproduzíveis na extubação sempre que viável [4, 14]. Quando não for possível reproduzir alguns elementos (por exemplo, posição de cheirar após fusão da coluna cervical) ou quando o risco de desafios no manejo da via aérea tiver aumentado desde a intubação traqueal (por exemplo, anatomia da via aérea distorcida após cirurgia), a estratégia de extubação deve abordar isso [4, 14, 22, 29, 111]. O uso de um cateter de troca de via aérea para facilitar a reintubação traqueal é discutido abaixo.

Se o cuidado de um paciente de alto risco for transferido entre profissionais após a extubação (seja de equipe médica para equipe de enfermagem ou entre equipes médicas ou de enfermagem), deve-se fornecer passagem verbal de caso e documentação escrita que descreva as preocupações com a via aérea, sinais de alerta, gatilhos para revisão, bem como a estratégia proposta para reintubação traqueal, incluindo qualquer equipamento especial necessário e os detalhes de contato do operador responsável pela via aérea [1, 14, 15, 31, 43]. Quando a supervisão ou implementação da estratégia de reintubação traqueal exigir o envolvimento de profissionais diferentes daqueles inicialmente envolvidos no manejo do paciente, recomenda-se uma passagem de caso entre operadores.

Cuidados pós-extubação: A estratégia de extubação deve abordar a necessidade de o paciente permanecer em um local com equipe, equipamento e monitorização para reconhecer prontamente a necessidade de reintubação traqueal e executar o plano de reintubação traqueal com segurança [1, 14, 15]. O período durante o qual o paciente permanece em risco aumentado de necessitar de reintubação traqueal variará conforme o contexto e deve ser avaliado caso a caso. Os pacientes geralmente devem permanecer em jejum até que o período de 'risco' tenha terminado [179].

A observação vigilante e a notificação precoce da deterioração da via aérea são aspectos essenciais dos cuidados pós-extubação que promovem tanto a prevenção da necessidade de reintubação traqueal quanto a facilitação da reintubação traqueal quando necessária. Os pacientes devem ser observados quanto a dessaturação de oxigênio; necessidade crescente de oxigênio; esforço respiratório alterado; diminuição do nível de consciência; e início de agitação (como marcador de hipoxemia) [1, 15, 31]. Os sítios cirúrgicos próximos à via aérea devem ser observados quanto a inchaço; sangramento; perfusão do retalho; e perdas por drenos [64, 180]. Sinais adicionais de obstrução progressiva da via aérea incluem alteração da voz; sialorreia; estridor; movimento paradoxal do tórax; retração traqueal; recessão intercostal; e, por fim, uma via aérea silenciosa [1, 4, 14, 78].

Plan for avoiding pulmonary aspirationPlano para evitar aspiração pulmonar

Protective sequence extubation comprises a set of interventions to be used in patients designated `at risk´ of pulmonary aspiration, analogous to the components of rapid sequence intubation (Fig. 3) [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. Many of these represent good practice for any extubation, regardless of pulmonary aspiration risk, but are particularly important for reducing

Figura 3

Figure 3: Figure 3 Components of protective sequence extubation [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating at A3 size is recommended. ETO2, end-tidal oxygen.Figura 3: Figura 3 Componentes da sequência protetora de extubação [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. Uma versão em alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se a impressão e plastificação em tamanho A3. ETO2, oxigênio ao final da expiração.

Patients designated `at risk´ of pulmonary aspiration should undergo awake extubation to maximise the likelihood that airway-protective re fl exes have returned [14, 182]. As discussed above, deliberate stimulation during emergence to provoke responses from a patient and hasten extubation may have adverse consequences. In addition, once stimulation ceases, a subsequent decrease in conscious state following extubation may result in loss of airway protective re fl exes, predisposing to pulmonaryaspiration.

Particular attention should be paid to optimising re-oxygenation of the functional residual capacity [1, 15]. This maximises the safe apnoea time in case of interruptions to ventilation occurring due to airway obstruction (from aspiration of foreign material or subsequent laryngospasm) or the need to suction regurgitated material from the airway before applying positive pressure. Use of a bite block should be considered in patients designated `at risk´ of aspiration [1, 14, 15]. If biting obstructs the tracheal tube during awake extubation, de fl ating the cuff to avoid negative-pressure pulmonary oedema is undesirable in

these patients. The impact of clearing airway contaminants, gastric decompression, position, antagonism of neuromuscular blockade and providing a sustained vital capacity breath have been discussed above.

Table 3 Techniques for reducing harm from airway stimulation during extubation.

TechniqueTarget complicationsExamples
Lidocaine*Hypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingTopical at tracheal intubation (spray to cords; ointment on tracheal tube cuff) Intracuff during tracheal intubation Intravenous at tracheal extubation†
Sedative/analgesicsHypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingOpioids† Dexmedetomidine†
AntihypertensivesHypertensionBeta blockers Clonidine† Magnesium†
Reduce stimulating interventionsHypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingDeep tracheal extubation†,‡ (including deep exchange of tracheal tube for supraglottic airway) Nasotracheal intubation Avoidance of stimulation at intermediate planes of unconsciousness
TécnicaComplicações-alvoExemplos
Lidocaína*Hipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoTópica na intubação traqueal (spray nas cordas vocais; pomada no balonete do tubo traqueal) Intra-balão durante a intubação traqueal Intravenosa na extubação traqueal†
Sedativos/analgésicosHipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoOpioides† Dexmedetomidina†
Anti-hipertensivosHipertensãoBetabloqueadores Clonidina† Magnésio†
Reduzir intervenções estimulantesHipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoExtubação traqueal profunda†,‡ (incluindo troca profunda do tubo traqueal por via aérea supraglótica) Intubação nasotraqueal Evitar estimulação em planos intermediários de inconsciência

Extubação em sequência protetora compreende um conjunto de intervenções a serem usadas em pacientes designados como “de risco” para aspiração pulmonar, de forma análoga aos componentes da intubação em sequência rápida (Fig. 3) [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. Muitas dessas intervenções representam boa prática para qualquer extubação, independentemente do risco de aspiração pulmonar, mas são particularmente importantes para reduzir

Figura 3

Figure 3: Figure 3 Components of protective sequence extubation [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating at A3 size is recommended. ETO2, end-tidal oxygen.Figura 3: Figura 3 Componentes da sequência protetora de extubação [1, 14, 15, 68, 93, 143, 146 - 148, 150, 151, 181, 182]. Uma versão em alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se a impressão e plastificação em tamanho A3. ETO2, oxigênio ao final da expiração.

Pacientes designados como “de risco” para aspiração pulmonar devem ser submetidos à extubação com o paciente acordado para maximizar a probabilidade de que os reflexos protetores das vias aéreas tenham retornado [14, 182]. Conforme discutido acima, a estimulação deliberada durante o despertar para provocar respostas de um paciente e apressar a extubação pode ter consequências adversas. Além disso, uma vez cessada a estimulação, uma diminuição subsequente do nível de consciência após a extubação pode resultar em perda dos reflexos protetores das vias aéreas, predispondo à aspiração pulmonar.

Deve-se prestar atenção especial à otimização da reoxigenação da capacidade residual funcional [1, 15]. Isso maximiza o tempo de apneia seguro em caso de interrupções na ventilação decorrentes de obstrução das vias aéreas (por aspiração de material estranho ou laringoespasmo subsequente) ou da necessidade de aspirar material regurgitado das vias aéreas antes de aplicar pressão positiva. O uso de um bloqueador de mordida deve ser considerado em pacientes designados como “de risco” para aspiração [1, 14, 15]. Se a mordida obstruir o tubo traqueal durante a extubação com o paciente acordado, desinsuflar o balonete para evitar edema pulmonar por pressão negativa é indesejável nesses pacientes. O impacto da remoção de contaminantes das vias aéreas, da descompressão gástrica, da posição, do antagonismo do bloqueio neuromuscular e da realização de uma respiração sustentada até a capacidade vital foi discutido acima.

Tabela 3 Técnicas para reduzir os danos da estimulação das vias aéreas durante a extubação.

TechniqueTarget complicationsExamples
Lidocaine*Hypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingTopical at tracheal intubation (spray to cords; ointment on tracheal tube cuff) Intracuff during tracheal intubation Intravenous at tracheal extubation†
Sedative/analgesicsHypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingOpioids† Dexmedetomidine†
AntihypertensivesHypertensionBeta blockers Clonidine† Magnesium†
Reduce stimulating interventionsHypertension Laryngospasm Coughing StrainingDeep tracheal extubation†,‡ (including deep exchange of tracheal tube for supraglottic airway) Nasotracheal intubation Avoidance of stimulation at intermediate planes of unconsciousness
TécnicaComplicações-alvoExemplos
Lidocaína*Hipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoTópica na intubação traqueal (spray nas cordas vocais; pomada no balonete do tubo traqueal) Intra-balão durante a intubação traqueal Intravenosa na extubação traqueal†
Sedativos/analgésicosHipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoOpioides† Dexmedetomidina†
Anti-hipertensivosHipertensãoBetabloqueadores Clonidina† Magnésio†
Reduzir intervenções estimulantesHipertensão, laringoespasmo, tosse, esforçoExtubação traqueal profunda†,‡ (incluindo troca profunda do tubo traqueal por via aérea supraglótica) Intubação nasotraqueal Evitar estimulação em planos intermediários de inconsciência

Protective sequence extubation (Figure 3)Sequência protetora de extubação (Figura 3)

Plan for avoiding harm from airway stimulationPlano para evitar lesão por estimulação da via aérea

Deep extubation or supraglottic airway removal decreases the risk of sympathetic stimulation, coughing, straining and bronchospasm [143, 183], but is associated with an increased risk of upper airway obstruction [184]. Barring contraindications, deep removal of airway devices is common practice in children, as in this population airway reactivity and the risk of associated complications are increased when removing these awake [15, 169, 185]. Conversely, in adults, supraglottic airways typically produce minimal airway stimulation and can be removed awake, barring speci fi c issues. Deep exchange of a tracheal tube for a supraglottic airway before emergence may be useful to minimise airway stimulation if no contraindications exist [14, 15, 23, 143, 183, 186 - 188]. Deep extubation or exchange of a tracheal tube for a supraglottic airway are not appropriate techniques for minimising airway stimulation in the presence of increased pulmonary aspiration risk or where the suggested approach from the extubation algorithm is anything other than `discretionary management´ [15, 23, 166]. Suctioning of secretions that might provoke laryngospasm or bronchospasm and the importance of avoiding airway stimulation during intermediate planes of unconsciousness have been discussed above. Other techniques to reduce harm from airway stimulation are outlined in Table 3 [14, 15, 23, 44, 121, 189 - 207].

A extubação profunda ou a remoção da via aérea supraglótica reduz o risco de estimulação simpática, tosse, esforço e broncoespasmo [143, 183], mas está associada a um risco aumentado de obstrução de via aérea superior [184]. Salvo contraindicações, a remoção profunda de dispositivos de via aérea é prática comum em crianças, pois nessa população a reatividade das vias aéreas e o risco de complicações associadas aumentam quando esses dispositivos são removidos com o paciente acordado [15, 169, 185]. Por outro lado, em adultos, as vias aéreas supraglóticas geralmente produzem estimulação mínima das vias aéreas e podem ser removidas com o paciente acordado, salvo problemas específicos. A troca profunda de um tubo traqueal por uma via aérea supraglótica antes do despertar pode ser útil para minimizar a estimulação das vias aéreas se não houver contraindicações [14, 15, 23, 143, 183, 186 - 188]. A extubação profunda ou a troca de um tubo traqueal por uma via aérea supraglótica não são técnicas apropriadas para minimizar a estimulação das vias aéreas na presença de risco aumentado de aspiração pulmonar ou quando a abordagem sugerida pelo algoritmo de extubação for diferente de “manejo discricionário” [15, 23, 166]. A aspiração de secreções que possam provocar laringoespasmo ou broncoespasmo e a importância de evitar a estimulação das vias aéreas durante planos intermediários de inconsciência foram discutidas acima. Outras técnicas para reduzir os danos causados pela estimulação das vias aéreas estão descritas na Tabela 3 [14, 15, 23, 44, 121, 189 - 207].

Chapter 6Capítulo 6

Preparation & Exchange CathetersPreparação e cateteres de troca

Preparation for tracheal extubationPreparação para a extubação traqueal

The extubation checklist addresses the requirements for safe extubation, controlled tracheal re-intubation (if this becomes necessary) and airway rescue via both upper airway and neck (if airway obstruction or apnoea occurs; Fig. 4). While the extubation checklist may be used as a prompt during preparation for extubation, its primary role is to verify that critical preparation tasks have already been completed [208]. When extubation is anticipated to be challenging, using the extubation checklist in a team setting with a challenge-response format, immediately before commencing the extubation sequence (Fig. 5), is encouraged [4, 208 - 211]. Instructions for using the tools in Figs. 4 and 5 are provided in online Supporting Information Appendix S4 and at www. UniversalAirway.org/extubation/checklist.

A lista de verificação de extubação aborda os requisitos para extubação segura, reintubação traqueal controlada (caso esta se torne necessária) e resgate da via aérea tanto pela via aérea superior quanto pelo pescoço (se ocorrer obstrução da via aérea ou apneia; Fig. 4). Embora a lista de verificação de extubação possa ser usada como um lembrete durante a preparação para a extubação, seu papel principal é verificar se as tarefas críticas de preparação já foram concluídas [208]. Quando se prevê que a extubação será desafiadora, incentiva-se o uso da lista de verificação de extubação em equipe, em formato de desafio-resposta, imediatamente antes de iniciar a sequência de extubação (Fig. 5) [4, 208 - 211]. As instruções para o uso das ferramentas nas Figs. 4 e 5 são fornecidas no Material de Apoio online, Apêndice S4, e em www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/checklist.

Airway exchange cathetersCateteres de troca de via aérea

Airway exchange catheters are specially designed long, fi ne tracheal re-intubation guides that are placed into the trachea before extubation and remain there after the tracheal tube is removed, until the patient is no longer at increased risk of requiring tracheal re-intubation.

Os cateteres de troca de via aérea são guias de reintubação traqueal longos e finos, especialmente projetados, que são introduzidos na traqueia antes da extubação e ali permanecem após a remoção do tubo traqueal, até que o paciente não apresente mais risco aumentado de necessitar de reintubação traqueal.

Indications for using an airway exchange catheterIndicações de uso do cateter de troca de via aérea

Awake extubation over an airway exchange catheter is recommended if considered necessary to provide an adequate margin of safety from hypoxaemia [4, 5, 14, 15, 23, 212 - 214]. The extubation algorithm offers guidance as to when this is the case. While airway exchange catheters do not guarantee that tracheal re-intubation will be achieved, in the hands of operators pro fi cient in their use, these have a high success rate [214, 215]. Signi fi cantly improved fi rst attempt rates (87% vs. 14% when not using an airway exchange catheter) and overall tracheal re-intubation success rates of 92% have been reported when an airway exchange catheter is used [214, 216]. An airway exchange catheter should only be considered when it is judged that proceeding with extubation is appropriate [14, 30, 217, 218]. Airway exchange catheters should not be used to justify proceeding with extubation when a patient would bene fi t from deferral or tracheostomy [14, 30, 217, 218].

Figure 4 Tracheal extubation checklist. This has been designed to be used as an implementation tool. When extubation is anticipated to be challenging, use of the extubation checklist in a team setting to con fi rm completion of tasks, immediately before commencing the extubation sequence (Fig. 5), is encouraged. Optimal use during clinical practice requires prior familiarity with the checklist and guideline text. Instructions for use are provided at www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/ checklist. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating at A3 size is recommended. SpO2, pulse oximetry; ETCO2, end-tidal carbon dioxide, NIBP, non-invasive blood pressure; ECG, electrocardiogram; PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure; NIV, non-invasive ventilation; Mac, Macintosh blade.

Figura 4

Where the extubation algorithm recommends awake extubation over an airway exchange catheter in a child, the safety and feasibility of this must be considered. In young children, a short trachea predisposes to endobronchial or supraglottic displacement. Other considerations include the child ' s ability to tolerate the catheter and the experience of the practitioner with airway exchange catheter use in this population. While evidence suggests airway exchange catheters can be used effectively even in young children, experience is limited [34, 219 - 221].

A extubação com paciente desperto sobre cateter trocador de via aérea é recomendada se for considerada necessária para proporcionar uma margem adequada de segurança contra hipoxemia [4, 5, 14, 15, 23, 212 - 214]. O algoritmo de extubação orienta quando esse é o caso. Embora os cateteres trocadores de via aérea não garantam que a reintubação traqueal será alcançada, nas mãos de operadores proficientes em seu uso, eles apresentam alta taxa de sucesso [214, 215]. Foram relatadas taxas significativamente melhores de sucesso na primeira tentativa (87% vs. 14% quando não se utiliza um cateter trocador de via aérea) e taxas globais de sucesso de reintubação traqueal de 92% quando se utiliza um cateter trocador de via aérea [214, 216]. O cateter trocador de via aérea só deve ser considerado quando se julgar que prosseguir com a extubação é apropriado [14, 30, 217, 218]. Os cateteres trocadores de via aérea não devem ser usados para justificar a realização da extubação quando o paciente se beneficiaria do adiamento ou de traqueostomia [14, 30, 217, 218].

Figura 4 Checklist de extubação traqueal. Ele foi elaborado para ser usado como uma ferramenta de implementação. Quando se antecipa que a extubação será desafiadora, incentiva-se o uso do checklist de extubação em equipe para confirmar a conclusão das tarefas, imediatamente antes de iniciar a sequência de extubação (Fig. 5). O uso ideal durante a prática clínica exige familiaridade prévia com o checklist e com o texto da diretriz. As instruções de uso estão disponíveis em www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/checklist. Uma versão de alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se imprimir e plastificar em tamanho A3. SpO2, oximetria de pulso; ETCO2, dióxido de carbono ao final da expiração; NIBP, pressão arterial não invasiva; ECG, eletrocardiograma; PEEP, pressão positiva ao final da expiração; NIV, ventilação não invasiva; Mac, lâmina de Macintosh.

Figura 4

Quando o algoritmo de extubação recomenda extubação com paciente desperto sobre cateter trocador de via aérea em uma criança, a segurança e a viabilidade dessa conduta devem ser consideradas. Em crianças pequenas, uma traqueia curta predispõe a deslocamento endobrônquico ou supraglótico. Outras considerações incluem a capacidade da criança de tolerar o cateter e a experiência do profissional com o uso do cateter trocador de via aérea nessa população. Embora as evidências sugiram que os cateteres trocadores de via aérea podem ser usados de forma eficaz mesmo em crianças pequenas, a experiência é limitada [34, 219 - 221].

Choice of airway exchange catheterEscolha do cateter de troca de via aérea

The airway exchange catheter should be at least twice the length of the existing tracheal tube to minimise the risk of displacement during extubation [43]. It should also be suf fi ciently stiff to permit tracheal re-intubation; thus, wires are not recommended [14, 222]. Distance and radio-opaque markings are both essential [14, 23, 66, 222].

O cateter de troca de via aérea deve ter pelo menos o dobro do comprimento do tubo traqueal existente para minimizar o risco de deslocamento durante a extubação [43]. Ele também deve ser suficientemente rígido para permitir a reintubação traqueal; portanto, fios-guia não são recomendados [14, 222]. As marcações de distância e radiopacas são ambas essenciais [14, 23, 66, 222].

Insertion of the airway exchange catheterInserção do cateter de troca de via aérea

Once the patient is awake and otherwise ready for extubation, the airway exchange catheter is inserted through the existing tracheal tube with the distance markings on the airway exchange catheter aligned with those of the tracheal tube [14, 15, 31]. Insertion of the airway exchange catheter to the same depth as the tracheal tube, measured at the patient ' s teeth or lips, assists with achieving ideal position of the airway exchange catheter tip, half-way between the larynx and carina [14, 15, 30, 217]. Secure four-point fi xation of the airway exchange catheter in the midline (above and below the mouth) is suggested [23, 30, 43, 66, 213]. Images illustrating measurement of depth of insertion and four-point fi xation of the airway exchange catheter are provided in online Supporting Information Figures S1 and S2 and at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/

Figure 5 Tracheal extubation sequence. This may be used as a foundation tool or an implementation tool. When used as an implementation tool, it should be preceded by completion of the `Extubation Checklist´ (Fig. 4). When extubation is anticipated to be challenging, allocating a reader to verbalise each item is encouraged. Optimal use during clinical practice requires prior familiarity with the graphic and guideline text. Instructions for use are provided at www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/ checklist. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating at A3 size is recommended. ETO2, end-tidal oxygen; PPV, positive-pressure ventilation.

Figura 5

aec. For nasally-placed airway exchange catheters, avoidance of pressure on the nasal ala should be ensured [43]. Clear labelling of the airway exchange catheter as an airway device is essential to distinguish it from a gastric tube [30]. Supplemental oxygen via airway exchange catheters Due to an unacceptable risk of barotrauma, oxygen should not be insuf fl ated via an airway exchange catheter [14, 15, 31, 43, 223, 224]. Supplemental oxygen can be provided to the patient through a facemask or nasal prongs. If a patient with an airway exchange catheter in situ desaturates, and simple measures are unsuccessful (e.g. increased FiO2 or airway support), urgent tracheal re-intubation should occur [15, 223].

Useanddwelltimeof the airway exchange catheter Correct airway exchange catheter placement should be con fi rmed with waveform capnography, nasoendoscopy or videolaryngoscopy [23, 43, 66]. Neither sedation nor topical anaesthesia is usually required for tolerance of the airway exchange catheter, and patients should be able to talk, cough and breathe deeply around the device [23]. Patient tolerance is optimised by midtracheal depth of insertion and secure fi xation [23, 214, 216]. Coughing or gagging should prompt re-evaluation of the midtracheal position of the airway exchange catheter using a chest X-ray [14, 23].

Although commonly practised, many airway exchange catheters are not licensed to be left in the airway for an extended period following extubation, making this an off-label application [14, 23, 225]. Patients with an airway exchange catheter in situ should remain in a high-acuity environment with resources to undertake tracheal re-intubation if required and clear instructions regarding whoshould be called if deterioration occurs [31]. Placement and removal of the airway exchange catheter are advanced procedures requiring an operator and team familiar with both the device and technique, including risks [31, 58, 222, 224, 226 - 230]. The airway exchange catheter should only be removed when the risk of tracheal re-intubation no longer remains, or there are no longer concerns about tracheal re-intubation being challenging [23, 66, 214]. Dwell times can be hours or up to several days [214, 231]. The patient must remain nil orally while the airway exchange catheter is in situ [23].

Tracheal re-intubation over the airway exchange catheter In preparation for tracheal re-intubation over the airway exchange catheter, a team brie fi ng outlining the intended and rescue components of the airway strategy should be undertaken using a checklist [31]. A tracheal tube with an internal diameter slightly greater than the external diameter of the airway exchange catheter should be selected [30, 31, 43, 222]. Positioning of the airway exchange catheter in the trachea should be recon fi rmed before tracheal reintubation [30, 66]. An airway assistant should be exclusively assigned to ensure that the airway exchange catheter depth doesnot change during tracheal re-intubation [66].

Induction of unconsciousness and neuromuscular blockade to facilitate tracheal re-intubation is recommended in most cases [87, 232]. However, in some patients, topicalisation and awake tracheal re-intubation over the airway exchange catheter may be possible [14]. Use of a videolaryngoscope is recommended, whether undertaking tracheal re-intubation awake or unconscious [43, 87, 232]. Blind tracheal re-intubation over an airway exchange catheter is discouraged [43, 87, 232]. Laryngoscopy retracts the tongue, allows monitoring of the airway exchange catheter during tracheal tube placement and may allow visualisation of the tracheal tube entering the glottis. If the airway exchange catheter dislodges during tracheal re-intubation, the rescue approach from the airway strategy should be implemented. Thepotential complications of airway exchange catheters and a guide for using an airway exchange catheter are provided in online Supporting Information Table S1 and Figure S3 and at https://www.Universal/Airway.org/extubation/aec [216, 222, 224, 228, 233].

Uma vez que o paciente esteja desperto e, de resto, pronto para a extubação, o cateter trocador de via aérea é inserido através do tubo traqueal existente, com as marcações de distância no cateter trocador de via aérea alinhadas com as do tubo traqueal [14, 15, 31]. A inserção do cateter trocador de via aérea na mesma profundidade do tubo traqueal, medida nos dentes ou lábios do paciente, ajuda a alcançar a posição ideal da ponta do cateter trocador de via aérea, a meio caminho entre a laringe e a carina [14, 15, 30, 217]. Sugere-se fixação segura em quatro pontos do cateter trocador de via aérea na linha média (acima e abaixo da boca) [23, 30, 43, 66, 213]. Imagens ilustrando a medição da profundidade de inserção e a fixação em quatro pontos do cateter trocador de via aérea são fornecidas nas Figuras S1 e S2 das Informações de Suporte on-line e em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/

Figura 5 Sequência de extubação traqueal. Esta pode ser usada como ferramenta de base ou como ferramenta de implementação. Quando usada como ferramenta de implementação, deve ser precedida pela conclusão da "Lista de Verificação de Extubação" (Fig. 4). Quando se prevê que a extubação será difícil, recomenda-se designar um leitor para verbalizar cada item. O uso ideal durante a prática clínica requer familiaridade prévia com o gráfico e o texto da diretriz. As instruções de uso são fornecidas em www.UniversalAirway.org/extubation/ checklist. Uma versão em alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se imprimir e plastificar em tamanho A3. ETO2, oxigênio expirado final; PPV, ventilação com pressão positiva.

Figura 5

aec. Para cateteres trocadores de via aérea inseridos por via nasal, deve-se garantir a prevenção de pressão sobre a asa nasal [43]. A rotulagem clara do cateter trocador de via aérea como dispositivo de via aérea é essencial para distingui-lo de uma sonda gástrica [30].

Oxigênio suplementar via cateteres trocadores de via aérea Devido a um risco inaceitável de barotrauma, o oxigênio não deve ser insuflado através de um cateter trocador de via aérea [14, 15, 31, 43, 223, 224]. Oxigênio suplementar pode ser fornecido ao paciente por meio de máscara facial ou prongas nasais. Se um paciente com cateter trocador de via aérea in situ apresentar dessaturação, e medidas simples não forem bem-sucedidas (por exemplo, aumento da FiO2 ou suporte de via aérea), deve-se realizar reintubação traqueal urgente [15, 223].

Uso e tempo de permanência do cateter trocador de via aérea O posicionamento correto do cateter trocador de via aérea deve ser confirmado com capnografia com forma de onda, nasoendoscopia ou videolaringoscopia [23, 43, 66]. Geralmente, não são necessários sedação nem anestesia tópica para a tolerância ao cateter trocador de via aérea, e os pacientes devem conseguir falar, tossir e respirar profundamente com o dispositivo no local [23]. A tolerância do paciente é otimizada pela profundidade de inserção traqueal média e pela fixação segura [23, 214, 216]. Tosse ou ânsia de vômito devem motivar reavaliação da posição traqueal média do cateter trocador de via aérea por meio de radiografia de tórax [14, 23].

Embora comumente praticado, muitos cateteres trocadores de via aérea não são licenciados para permanecer na via aérea por um período prolongado após a extubação, tornando esta uma aplicação off-label [14, 23, 225]. Pacientes com cateter trocador de via aérea in situ devem permanecer em um ambiente de alta complexidade com recursos para realizar reintubação traqueal, se necessário, e instruções claras sobre quem deve ser chamado se houver deterioração [31]. A inserção e a remoção do cateter trocador de via aérea são procedimentos avançados que exigem um operador e uma equipe familiarizados com o dispositivo e a técnica, incluindo os riscos [31, 58, 222, 224, 226–230]. O cateter trocador de via aérea só deve ser removido quando o risco de reintubação traqueal não existir mais, ou quando não houver mais preocupações de que a reintubação traqueal seja difícil [23, 66, 214]. Os tempos de permanência podem ser de horas ou até vários dias [214, 231]. O paciente deve permanecer em jejum oral enquanto o cateter trocador de via aérea estiver in situ [23].

Reintubação traqueal sobre o cateter trocador de via aérea Na preparação para a reintubação traqueal sobre o cateter trocador de via aérea, deve-se realizar um briefing da equipe descrevendo os componentes pretendidos e de resgate da estratégia de via aérea, utilizando uma lista de verificação [31]. Deve-se selecionar um tubo traqueal com diâmetro interno ligeiramente maior que o diâmetro externo do cateter trocador de via aérea [30, 31, 43, 222]. O posicionamento do cateter trocador de via aérea na traqueia deve ser reconfirmado antes da reintubação traqueal [30, 66]. Um assistente de via aérea deve ser designado exclusivamente para garantir que a profundidade do cateter trocador de via aérea não se altere durante a reintubação traqueal [66].

Recomenda-se a indução de inconsciência e bloqueio neuromuscular para facilitar a reintubação traqueal na maioria dos casos [87, 232]. No entanto, em alguns pacientes, a topicalização e a reintubação traqueal com o paciente desperto sobre o cateter trocador de via aérea podem ser possíveis [14]. Recomenda-se o uso de videolaringoscópio, seja na reintubação traqueal com o paciente desperto ou inconsciente [43, 87, 232]. A reintubação traqueal às cegas sobre um cateter trocador de via aérea é desencorajada [43, 87, 232]. A laringoscopia afasta a língua, permite o monitoramento do cateter trocador de via aérea durante a inserção do tubo traqueal e pode possibilitar a visualização do tubo traqueal entrando na glote. Se o cateter trocador de via aérea se deslocar durante a reintubação traqueal, a abordagem de resgate da estratégia de via aérea deve ser implementada. As complicações potenciais dos cateteres trocadores de via aérea e um guia para o uso de um cateter trocador de via aérea são fornecidos na Tabela S1 e Figura S3 das Informações de Suporte on-line e em https://www.Universal/Airway.org/extubation/aec [216, 222, 224, 228, 233].

Chapter 7Capítulo 7

Complications of ExtubationComplicações da extubação

Complications of extubationComplicações da extubação

Uneventful extubation involves executing the who, when, where and how elements of the intended approach to extubation. However, when upper airway obstruction or apnoea occurs, the rescue approach (`what is the plan if that plan fails?´) must be implemented (Fig. 1).

Upper airway obstruction in relation to extubation may occur due to loss of pharyngeal patency; airway soiling; laryngospasm; or the patient biting on a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway. Loss of pharyngeal patency may be acute or gradual. The cause of acute upper airway obstruction may not be easily delineated, and should be managed according to the standard principles for airway rescue. Particular issues contributing to airway obstruction during extubation are discussed below.

Extubação sem intercorrências envolve executar os elementos de quem, quando, onde e como da abordagem pretendida para a extubação. Entretanto, quando ocorre obstrução das vias aéreas superiores ou apneia, a abordagem de resgate (“qual é o plano se esse plano falhar?”) deve ser implementada (Fig. 1).

A obstrução das vias aéreas superiores relacionada à extubação pode ocorrer devido à perda da permeabilidade faríngea; contaminação das vias aéreas; laringoespasmo; ou mordida do paciente no tubo traqueal ou no dispositivo supraglótico. A perda da permeabilidade faríngea pode ser aguda ou gradual. A causa da obstrução aguda das vias aéreas superiores pode não ser facilmente delineada e deve ser manejada de acordo com os princípios padrão para resgate das vias aéreas. Questões específicas que contribuem para a obstrução das vias aéreas durante a extubação são discutidas abaixo.

Biting on tracheal tube or supraglottic airwayMordida no tubo traqueal ou dispositivo supraglótico

Young, healthy adults are prone to biting down forcefully during waking, obstructing the tracheal tube or supraglottic airway if a bite block is not present. When such obstruction occurs in this patient group, strong respiratory muscles combined with limited chest wall compliance predispose to the development of negative-pressure pulmonary oedema when inspiratory efforts are made, although this complication has also been reported in children [1, 14, 234 - 239]. Removing the tracheal tube at this stage may not be possible or, if achieved, may precipitate subsequent laryngospasm during this excitatory phase of emergence.

Conversely, de fl ating the cuff of a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway that has been obstructed by biting may allow the patient to breathe around the tube and avoid the occurrence of negative-pressure pulmonary oedema [14, 236 - 238]. If this is contraindicated (e.g. patient `at risk´ of pulmonary aspiration) or unsuccessful, sedation should be deepened, followed by administration of a rapid-onset neuromuscular blocking drug if necessary.

If negative-pressure pulmonary oedema does occur, removal of oedema fl uid from the airway is achieved by applying positive pressure to the lungs rather than by attempting to suction the fl uid from the airway [236, 237]. Suction increases fl uid loss and interrupts delivery of oxygen and application of positive pressure to the lungs, aggravating hypoxaemia [240, 241]. Suctioning of the airway is appropriate only as part of the management of negative-pressure pulmonary oedema when it is required to provide a view for tracheal intubation. When pulmonary oedema fl uid is copious, keeping the heat and moisture exchange fi lter non-dependent helps avoid it becoming blocked [242]. Diuretics are not bene fi cial in negativepressure pulmonary oedema and may aggravate hypovolaemia resulting from transfer of fl uid to the lungs [236].

Adultos jovens saudáveis são propensos a morder com força durante o despertar, obstruindo o tubo traqueal ou o dispositivo supraglótico se um protetor de mordida não estiver presente. Quando essa obstrução ocorre nesse grupo de pacientes, músculos respiratórios fortes combinados com complacência torácica limitada predispõem ao desenvolvimento de edema pulmonar por pressão negativa quando são feitos esforços inspiratórios, embora essa complicação também tenha sido relatada em crianças [1, 14, 234 - 239]. Remover o tubo traqueal nesse estágio pode não ser possível ou, se alcançado, pode precipitar laringospasmo subsequente durante essa fase excitatória do despertar.

Por outro lado, desinsuflar o balonete de um tubo traqueal ou dispositivo supraglótico que foi obstruído por mordida pode permitir que o paciente respire ao redor do tubo e evitar a ocorrência de edema pulmonar por pressão negativa [14, 236 - 238]. Se isso for contraindicado (por exemplo, paciente 'em risco' de aspiração pulmonar) ou malsucedido, a sedação deve ser aprofundada, seguida pela administração de um bloqueador neuromuscular de início rápido, se necessário.

Se ocorrer edema pulmonar por pressão negativa, a remoção do líquido de edema das vias aéreas é alcançada pela aplicação de pressão positiva aos pulmões, em vez de tentar aspirar o líquido das vias aéreas [236, 237]. A aspiração aumenta a perda de líquido e interrompe a administração de oxigênio e a aplicação de pressão positiva aos pulmões, agravando a hipoxemia [240, 241]. A aspiração das vias aéreas é apropriada apenas como parte do manejo do edema pulmonar por pressão negativa quando é necessária para fornecer visualização para intubação traqueal. Quando o líquido de edema pulmonar é copioso, manter o filtro trocador de calor e umidade não dependente ajuda a evitar que ele fique bloqueado [242]. Diuréticos não são benéficos no edema pulmonar por pressão negativa e podem agravar a hipovolemia resultante da transferência de líquido para os pulmões [236].

LaryngospasmLaringoespasmo

Laryngospasm may cause partial or complete upper airway obstruction. Partial upper airway obstruction is typically associated with stridor in the spontaneously breathing patient. Other causes of upper airway obstruction or increased airway pressure (foreign body; blood clot; gastric regurgitation; collapse of pharyngeal tissues; bronchospasm) may be dif fi cult to distinguish from laryngospasm and should always be considered [101]. A stepwise approach to treatment of laryngospasm is outlined in Fig. 6 [14, 101, 243 - 245]. Upper airway obstruction that does not resolve with administration of an intubating dose of neuromuscular blocking drug is not due to laryngospasm, and other causes should be sought. If speci fi c therapies for laryngospasm are unsuccessful, standard optimisations to restore upper airway patency by each of the lifelines should be implemented, with progression to neck rescue when required. Any persistent hypoxaemia, high airway pressure or inadequate end-tidal carbon dioxide should then be managed accordingly.

O laringospasmo pode causar obstrução parcial ou completa das vias aéreas superiores. A obstrução parcial das vias aéreas superiores está tipicamente associada a estridor no paciente em respiração espontânea. Outras causas de obstrução das vias aéreas superiores ou de aumento da pressão nas vias aéreas (corpo estranho; coágulo sanguíneo; regurgitação gástrica; colapso dos tecidos faríngeos; broncoespasmo) podem ser difíceis de distinguir do laringospasmo e devem sempre ser consideradas [101]. Uma abordagem escalonada para o tratamento do laringospasmo está descrita na Fig. 6 [14, 101, 243 - 245]. A obstrução das vias aéreas superiores que não se resolve com a administração de uma dose de intubação de bloqueador neuromuscular não é devida a laringospasmo, e outras causas devem ser investigadas. Se as terapias específicas para laringospasmo não forem bem-sucedidas, devem ser implementadas as otimizações padrão para restaurar a patência das vias aéreas superiores por cada uma das linhas de vida, com progressão para resgate cervical quando necessário. Qualquer hipoxemia persistente, pressão elevada nas vias aéreas ou dióxido de carbono ao final da expiração inadequado deve, então, ser manejado de acordo.

Gastric regurgitation or pulmonary aspirationRegurgitação gástrica ou aspiração pulmonar

If gastric regurgitation occurs, the patient should be placed either on their side or in the head-down position [91, 246,

247]. Wide-bore suction is preferred over a standard Yankauer sucker for large volume, viscous or semi-solid regurgitated material [181]. Care should be taken to avoid stimulation of the gag re fl ex, which may trigger or worsen vomiting. If signi fi cant pulmonary aspiration has occurred, consider the need for bronchoscopy [145, 248 - 250].

Se ocorrer regurgitação gástrica, o paciente deve ser posicionado em decúbito lateral ou em posição de cabeça para baixo [91, 246, 247]. A aspiração com sonda de grosso calibre é preferível ao aspirador de Yankauer padrão para material regurgitado de grande volume, viscoso ou semissólido [181]. Deve-se ter cuidado para evitar a estimulação do reflexo de vômito, o que pode desencadear ou piorar o vômito. Se tiver ocorrido aspiração pulmonar significativa, considerar a necessidade de broncoscopia [145, 248 - 250].

AirwayconversionConversão de via aérea

The substitution of one successfully established lifeline for another, or between a lifeline and a neck airway, can be classi fi ed as either conversion or replacement [178]. Airway conversion procedures are characterised by the continuous ability to maintain alveolar ventilation, or the presence of a guide that facilitates rapid restoration of alveolar ventilation (e.g. tracheal intubation via a supraglottic airway) [178]. Conversion techniques lie on a spectrum, with the most conservative techniques providing both (see online Supporting Information Appendix S4 or https://www. UniversalAirway.org/conversion). In contrast, airway replacement techniques inevitably interrupt alveolar ventilation via the initial lifeline until it can be restored via the subsequent lifeline, and do not employ a guide in the airway (e.g. removal of a supraglottic airway to attempt tracheal intubation) [178]. Replacement techniques are more accurately conceptualised as discontinuation of airway management coupled with planned immediate airway restoration using an alternative lifeline. When a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway is in situ, and substitution of lifelines is required, airway conversion is preferred over airway replacement procedures, particularly when the margin of safety from hypoxaemia is reduced [178, 251].

Airway conversion requires an equivalent level of evaluation, strategy formulation, preparation and vigilance to that necessary for tracheal intubation and extubation. This includes plans for airway rescue, as conversion does not eliminate the risk of airway obstruction [178]. Unless spontaneous respiration is required to maintain alveolar ventilation, deep neuromuscular blockade during conversion procedures typically improves safety by reducing the risk of airway loss due to coughing or laryngospasm and by facilitating airway rescue. When tracheal tube exchange is performed, an airway exchange catheter rather than a bougie should be used due to its greater length [43, 214].

A substituição de uma via de suporte vital já estabelecida por outra, ou entre uma via de suporte vital e uma via aérea cervical, pode ser classificada como conversão ou troca [178]. Os procedimentos de conversão da via aérea caracterizam-se pela capacidade contínua de manter a ventilação alveolar, ou pela presença de um guia que facilita o restabelecimento rápido da ventilação alveolar (p. ex., intubação traqueal através de uma via aérea supraglótica) [178]. As técnicas de conversão situam-se em um espectro, com as técnicas mais conservadoras fornecendo ambos (ver Informações de Apoio online, Apêndice S4, ou https://www.UniversalAirway.org/conversion). Em contraste, as técnicas de troca da via aérea inevitavelmente interrompem a ventilação alveolar pela via de suporte vital inicial até que possa ser restabelecida pela via de suporte vital subsequente, e não empregam um guia na via aérea (p. ex., remoção de uma via aérea supraglótica para tentar intubação traqueal) [178]. As técnicas de troca são mais precisamente conceituadas como a descontinuação do manejo da via aérea associada ao restabelecimento imediato planejado da via aérea usando uma via de suporte vital alternativa. Quando um tubo traqueal ou uma via aérea supraglótica está in situ e é necessária a substituição de vias de suporte vital, a conversão da via aérea é preferida em relação aos procedimentos de troca da via aérea, particularmente quando a margem de segurança contra hipoxemia é reduzida [178, 251].

A conversão da via aérea requer um nível equivalente de avaliação, formulação de estratégia, preparo e vigilância ao necessário para a intubação traqueal e a extubação. Isso inclui planos para resgate da via aérea, pois a conversão não elimina o risco de obstrução da via aérea [178]. A menos que a respiração espontânea seja necessária para manter a ventilação alveolar, o bloqueio neuromuscular profundo durante os procedimentos de conversão tipicamente melhora a segurança ao reduzir o risco de perda da via aérea por tosse ou laringoespasmo e ao facilitar o resgate da via aérea. Quando é realizada a troca de tubo traqueal, deve-se utilizar um cateter de troca de via aérea em vez de um bougie, devido ao seu maior comprimento [43, 214].

Chapter 8Capítulo 8

DiscussionDiscussão

DiscussionDiscussão

Planned extubation is always an elective procedure. Adverse events during extubation are common, highlighting the importance of performing a structured risk

Figure 6 Stepwise treatment of laryngospasm [14, 101, 243 - 245]. This has been designed to be used as an implementation tool. A high-resolution version is available for download at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Printing and laminating at A3 size is recommended. CPAP, continuous positive airway pressure; NMBD, neuromuscular blocking drug; IV, intravenous; IM, intramuscular; IO, intra-osseous.

Figura 6

assessment and linking this assessment to a comprehensive extubation strategy. Extubation warrants the same level of evaluation, strategy formulation, preparation and vigilance as are required for tracheal intubation. When substitution of an existing tracheal tube or supraglottic airway device is required, airway conversion procedures are typically preferred to airway replacement procedures.

The principles outlined in this guideline are applicable across geographical boundaries, patient populations and clinical contexts. This includes adults and children in the operating theatre, emergency department and intensive care unit. While extubation is a less common procedure in emergency medicine, it may be performed following shortterm tracheal intubation for decreased conscious state (intoxication or overdose); to facilitate imaging in patients who are unable to cooperate; or to provide airway protection during procedures requiring sedation. These guidelines apply equally to these situations. Although every effort was made to address common principles relating to discontinuation of airway support across all airway lifelines and patient types, more nuanced aspects of these speci fi c contexts had to be omitted in the interests of the length and clarity of the document. It is recognised that, in some settings, system constraints may make immediate implementation of some recommendations infeasible. In the interim, these recommendations should be viewed as aspirational.

As infrequent, unanticipated, life-threatening events do not lend themselves to experimental research, the level of evidence for most recommendations is necessarily expert opinion. These guidelines may have bene fi ted from seeking feedback from patients and policy makers.

Effective translation of these guidelines into clinical practice requires practitioners to be trained in their use. Free educator and learner resources will progressively be made available at https://www.UniversalAirway.org/ training.

Review of these guidelines, ideally by a group including representatives from the major international airway societies, is intended to be undertaken within 10 years of publication. Until then, it is hoped that these guidelines improve the safety of tracheal extubation globally.

Extubação planejada é sempre um procedimento eletivo. Eventos adversos durante a extubação são comuns, o que destaca a importância de realizar uma avaliação de risco estruturada

Figura 6 Tratamento escalonado do laringoespasmo [14, 101, 243 - 245]. Este foi elaborado para ser usado como ferramenta de implementação. Uma versão em alta resolução está disponível para download em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/downloads. Recomenda-se imprimir e plastificar em tamanho A3. CPAP, pressão positiva contínua nas vias aéreas; NMBD, fármaco bloqueador neuromuscular; IV, intravenoso; IM, intramuscular; IO, intraósseo.

Figura 6

avaliação e vinculação dessa avaliação a uma estratégia abrangente de extubação. A extubação exige o mesmo nível de avaliação, formulação de estratégia, preparo e vigilância que é necessário para a intubação traqueal. Quando é necessária a substituição de um tubo traqueal existente ou de um dispositivo supraglótico de via aérea, os procedimentos de conversão da via aérea são geralmente preferidos aos procedimentos de substituição da via aérea.

Os princípios delineados nesta diretriz são aplicáveis em diferentes fronteiras geográficas, populações de pacientes e contextos clínicos. Isso inclui adultos e crianças no centro cirúrgico, no departamento de emergência e na unidade de terapia intensiva. Embora a extubação seja um procedimento menos comum na medicina de emergência, ela pode ser realizada após intubação traqueal de curta duração por rebaixamento do nível de consciência (intoxicação ou overdose); para facilitar exames de imagem em pacientes incapazes de cooperar; ou para proporcionar proteção das vias aéreas durante procedimentos que exigem sedação. Estas diretrizes se aplicam igualmente a essas situações. Embora todos os esforços tenham sido feitos para abordar princípios comuns relacionados à descontinuação do suporte das vias aéreas em todas as linhas de vida da via aérea e tipos de pacientes, aspectos mais sutis desses contextos específicos tiveram de ser omitidos em prol da extensão e clareza do documento. Reconhece-se que, em alguns cenários, limitações do sistema podem tornar inviável a implementação imediata de algumas recomendações. Nesse ínterim, essas recomendações devem ser vistas como aspiracionais.

Como eventos raros, imprevistos e potencialmente fatais não se prestam à pesquisa experimental, o nível de evidência para a maioria das recomendações é necessariamente a opinião de especialistas. Estas diretrizes poderiam ter se beneficiado da busca de feedback de pacientes e formuladores de políticas.

A aplicação efetiva destas diretrizes na prática clínica exige que os profissionais sejam treinados em seu uso. Recursos gratuitos para educadores e alunos serão progressivamente disponibilizados em https://www.UniversalAirway.org/training.

Pretende-se que a revisão destas diretrizes, idealmente por um grupo incluindo representantes das principais sociedades internacionais de via aérea, seja realizada em até 10 anos após a publicação. Até lá, espera-se que estas diretrizes melhorem a segurança da extubação traqueal globalmente.

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End matterFinais

Affiliations, Acknowledgements & SourcesAfiliações, Agradecimentos & Fontes

Author affiliationsAfiliações dos autores

Louise Ellard, 1,2 AndyHiggs, 3 Richard M. Cooper, 4 Carin A. Hagberg, 5 Paul A. Baker, 6,7 Robert Greif, 8,9 GeorgeKovacs, 10 J. Adam Law, 11 Sheila N. Myatra, 12 Ellen P. O ' Sullivan, 13 William H. Rosenblatt, 14 Christopher H. Ross, 15,16 JohnC.Sakles, 17 Massimiliano Sorbello, 18 and Nicholas C. Chrimes 19,20 1Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 2Honorary Clinical Senior Fellow, Department of Critical Care, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 3Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, Warrington Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cheshire, UK 4Professor Emeritus, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada 5Chief Academic Of fi cer, Division Head, Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Bud Johnson Clinical Distinguished Chair, Department of Anaesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA 6Associate Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand 7Consultant, Department of Anaesthesiology, Starship Children ' s Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand 8Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland 9Professor of Medical Education, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria 10Professor, Departments of Emergency Medicine, Anesthesia, Medical Neurosciences and Division of Medical Education, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada 11Professor, Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management andPerioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada 12Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, Critical Care andPain, Tata Memorial Hospital, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India 13Consultant, Department of Anaesthesiology, St James ' s Hospital, Dublin, Ireland 14Professor, Department of Anesthesia, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA 15Attending, Department of Emergency Medicine, Mercy Health, Javon Bea Hospital, Rockton and Riverside Campuses,Rockford, IL, USA 16Visiting Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA 17Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, USA 18Associate Professor, Kore University, Enna, Italy; Head of Department, Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Giovanni Paolo II Hospital, Ragusa, Italy 19Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management,Gosford Hospital, Gosford, NSW, Australia 20Consultant, Sydney Clinical Skills and Simulation Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Louise Ellard, 1,2 AndyHiggs, 3 Richard M. Cooper, 4 Carin A. Hagberg, 5 Paul A. Baker, 6,7 Robert Greif, 8,9 GeorgeKovacs, 10 J. Adam Law, 11 Sheila N. Myatra, 12 Ellen P. O ' Sullivan, 13 William H. Rosenblatt, 14 Christopher H. Ross, 15,16 JohnC.Sakles, 17 Massimiliano Sorbello, 18 and Nicholas C. Chrimes 19,20 1Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 2Honorary Clinical Senior Fellow, Department of Critical Care, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 3Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, Warrington Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cheshire, UK 4Professor Emeritus, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada 5Chief Academic Of fi cer, Division Head, Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Bud Johnson Clinical Distinguished Chair, Department of Anaesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA 6Associate Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand 7Consultant, Department of Anaesthesiology, Starship Children ' s Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand 8Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland 9Professor of Medical Education, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria 10Professor, Departments of Emergency Medicine, Anesthesia, Medical Neurosciences and Division of Medical Education, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada 11Professor, Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management andPerioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada 12Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, Critical Care andPain, Tata Memorial Hospital, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India 13Consultant, Department of Anaesthesiology, St James ' s Hospital, Dublin, Ireland 14Professor, Department of Anesthesia, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA 15Attending, Department of Emergency Medicine, Mercy Health, Javon Bea Hospital, Rockton and Riverside Campuses,Rockford, IL, USA 16Visiting Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA 17Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, USA 18Associate Professor, Kore University, Enna, Italy; Head of Department, Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Giovanni Paolo II Hospital, Ragusa, Italy 19Consultant, Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management,Gosford Hospital, Gosford, NSW, Australia 20Consultant, Sydney Clinical Skills and Simulation Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia

AcknowledgementsAgradecimentos

The authors wish to thank A. Rehak for his assistance in developing the components of an airway strategy. We would like to thank J. Graham, B. Ingram, B. Ots and the following members of our international multidisciplinary advisory group (https://www.UniversalAirway.org/ advisorygroup) and airway society representatives for completing expert surveys, providing targeted expert input and/or reviewing drafts of the manuscript: A. Alberts; M. Aziz; A. Barrow; D. Braude; A. Chan-Dominy; K. Chrimes; M. Clifford; J.C. Flores-Carrillo; T. Do; K. Fraser; J. Gatward; T. Heidegger; R. Hofmeyr; H. Huitink; P. Jones; M. Kristensen; O. Langer; J. Mosier; M. Mushabi; C. Nickson; M. Parotto; S. Sabato; C. Sandoval; T. Saracoglu; F. Urdaneta; R. Venkateswaran, and G. Zhou. LE is President of the Safe Airway Society and co-author of UpToDate chapter `Extubation following Anaesthesia´. NC is the creator of the Vortex Approach but has no fi nancial interest in this material which is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Licence. NC is a co-founder and clinical council member of the Safe Airway Society and an executive member of the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists, Australian Society of Anaesthetists and New Zealand Society of Anaesthetists Tripartite Airway Management Special Interest Group. NC is a director of the healthcare education provider Simpact Pty Ltd. AH is immediate past Treasurer of the Dif fi cult Airway Society. CAH has received research support from Ambu, Fisher and Paykel Health Limited, Karl Storz Endoscopy, Tele fl ex and Vyaire Medical. CAH has received honoraria from UpToDate and Elsevier. PAB is the owner of Airway Simulation Ltd which manufactures the ORSIM â bronchoscopy simulator. RG is treasurer of the European Airway Management Society and has received research support from Karl Storz Endoscopy. GK and JAL are Co-Directors of Airway Interventions and Management in Emergencies Educational Programs. CR is an independent contractor for Tele fl ex Inc. and also assists in the development and teaching of procedural skills labs. JS is faculty on The Dif fi cult Airway Course, Associate Editor of Walls Manual of Emergency Airway Management, Author UpToDate Chapter: RSI for Adults Outside the Operating Room and Author UpToDate Chapter: Emergency Cricothyrotomy. MS is the past president of the European Airway Management Society. He has received paid consultancy from DEAS Italia; he is a patent co-owner (no royalties - DNA â ) and a patent co-owner (royalties - Cricospeed â ) of DEAS Italia; he has a paid consultancy agreement with Flexicare, UK, NDA with Flexicare Italy and AI Endoscopic, Zurich. No data or statistical code were generated. No external funding or other competing interests declared.

Os autores agradecem a A. Rehak por sua assistência no desenvolvimento dos componentes de uma estratégia de via aérea. Gostaríamos de agradecer a J. Graham, B. Ingram, B. Ots e aos seguintes membros de nosso grupo consultivo multidisciplinar internacional (https://www.UniversalAirway.org/advisorygroup) e representantes de sociedades de via aérea por responderem às pesquisas com especialistas, fornecerem contribuições direcionadas de especialistas e/ou revisarem os rascunhos do manuscrito: A. Alberts; M. Aziz; A. Barrow; D. Braude; A. Chan-Dominy; K. Chrimes; M. Clifford; J.C. Flores-Carrillo; T. Do; K. Fraser; J. Gatward; T. Heidegger; R. Hofmeyr; H. Huitink; P. Jones; M. Kristensen; O. Langer; J. Mosier; M. Mushabi; C. Nickson; M. Parotto; S. Sabato; C. Sandoval; T. Saracoglu; F. Urdaneta; R. Venkateswaran, e G. Zhou. LE é Presidente da Safe Airway Society e coautor do capítulo do UpToDate `Extubation following Anaesthesia´. NC é o criador do Vortex Approach, mas não tem interesse financeiro neste material, que está licenciado sob uma Licença Internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0. NC é cofundador e membro do conselho clínico da Safe Airway Society e membro executivo do Tripartite Airway Management Special Interest Group do Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists, da Australian Society of Anaesthetists e da New Zealand Society of Anaesthetists. NC é diretor da empresa provedora de educação em saúde Simpact Pty Ltd. AH é ex-tesoureiro imediato da Difficult Airway Society. CAH recebeu apoio de pesquisa da Ambu, Fisher and Paykel Health Limited, Karl Storz Endoscopy, Teleflex e Vyaire Medical. CAH recebeu honorários da UpToDate e da Elsevier. PAB é proprietário da Airway Simulation Ltd, que fabrica o simulador de broncoscopia ORSIM â. RG é tesoureiro da European Airway Management Society e recebeu apoio de pesquisa da Karl Storz Endoscopy. GK e JAL são codiretores dos Programas Educacionais Airway Interventions and Management in Emergencies. CR é contratado independente da Teleflex Inc. e também auxilia no desenvolvimento e ensino de laboratórios de habilidades procedurais. JS é docente do The Difficult Airway Course, Editor Associado do Walls Manual of Emergency Airway Management, Autor do Capítulo do UpToDate: RSI for Adults Outside the Operating Room e Autor do Capítulo do UpToDate: Emergency Cricothyrotomy. MS é ex-presidente da European Airway Management Society. Ele recebeu consultoria paga da DEAS Italia; é coproprietário de patente (sem royalties - DNA â) e coproprietário de patente (com royalties - Cricospeed â) da DEAS Italia; tem contrato de consultoria paga com a Flexicare, Reino Unido, NDA com a Flexicare Italy e AI Endoscopic, Zurique. Nenhum dado ou código estatístico foi gerado. Nenhum financiamento externo ou outros conflitos de interesse declarados.

Supporting informationMaterial suplementar

Additional supporting information may be found online via the journal website.

Appendix S1. Class of recommendation and levels of evidence.

AppendixS2. Clinical practice implications.

Appendix S3. Instructions for using the extubation algorithm.

  • Appendix S4. Instructions for using the extubation checklist and awake extubation sequence.
  • Figure S1. Distance markings on airway exchange catheter andtracheal tube.

Figure S2. Four-point fi xation of airway exchange catheter.

Figure S3. Airway exchange catheter user guide.

- Figure S4. Spectrum of safety of airway conversion techniques.

Table S1. Potential complications of airway exchange catheters.

Additional supporting information may be found online via the journal website.

Appendix S1. Class of recommendation and levels of evidence.

AppendixS2. Clinical practice implications.

Appendix S3. Instructions for using the extubation algorithm.

  • Appendix S4. Instructions for using the extubation checklist and awake extubation sequence.
  • Figure S1. Distance markings on airway exchange catheter andtracheal tube.

Figure S2. Four-point fi xation of airway exchange catheter.

Figure S3. Airway exchange catheter user guide.

- Figure S4. Spectrum of safety of airway conversion techniques.

Table S1. Potential complications of airway exchange catheters.

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